Table tennis is a complex, high-speed sport that draws on fine motor control, rapid decision-making, and socially interactive play, making it a useful model for investigating multiple dimensions of child development. Although physical activity is broadly linked to physical and psychological benefits (1–3), the simultaneous engagement of motor, cognitive, and psychosocial systems in table tennis provides a distinctive context for examining their interplay. Preliminary evidence indicates improvements in motor coordination, reaction time, and balance among youth participants (3, 4); however, many studies evaluate these outcomes in isolation and often rely on self-report or narrowly defined experimental tasks, constraining a holistic understanding of developmental impact. Additional observational findings point to potential cognitive and affective benefits such as faster processing speed and lower cortisol levels (5) as well as better classroom focus and higher engagement in school-based physical education (6).

Owing to its dynamic demands simultaneous perceptual processing, rapid cognitive appraisal, and social–emotional regulation table tennis provides an ideal setting for examining interdependencies across developmental domains. Yet, unlike better-studied racquet sports such as tennis and badminton (7, 8), integrative analyses of table tennis remain limited (9–11), and no comprehensive framework delineates how behavioral domains interact during participation. To address this gap, the present study employs a concept-mapping approach to identify and visualize the multidimensional behavioral correlates of table tennis in school-aged children. Although prior work suggests that gameplay engages executive functions attentional control, inhibition, and working memory (12) and that contextual factors such as peer dynamics and socioeconomic conditions shape participation and training continuity (13, 14), systematic, child-focused investigations integrating motor, cognitive, and social behavior are scarce (2). Accordingly, we propose and test a holistic behavioral framework for table tennis participation.

Concept mapping provides a robust means to identify and visualize interrelated behavioral domains in this setting (6). In contrast to traditional regression or mediation techniques, it blends qualitative stakeholder input with quantitative clustering to uncover multidimensional structures spanning motor coordination, executive function, and social–emotional regulation. This approach is especially pertinent in child development research, where outcomes intersect and shift across developmental stages. Evidence from mixed-method education and health interventions shows that concept mapping can clarify how training activities translate into perceived and measurable developmental gains, thereby informing targeted curriculum design (6, 48).

Emerging evidence from tennis research underscores the importance of executive functions (EFs) in cognitively demanding racquet sports (7, 8). In an 18-month longitudinal study, Ishihara et al. (7) reported that higher EF indexed by cognitive flexibility predicted subsequent improvements in junior players’ competitive rankings, controlling for age and baseline performance. Extending these findings, Ishihara et al. (8) showed that greater tennis experience among children aged 6–12 was associated with stronger EF (inhibition, working memory, flexibility), which in turn predicted better dietary self-regulation; their SEM indicated an indirect path from tennis experience to healthy food intake via executive control. Collectively, these results highlight the broad developmental significance of EFs for sport-related performance and self-regulatory behaviors, reinforcing their relevance for sports such as table tennis.

Evidence from broader athletic literature reinforces the association between sport participation and executive function (EF), particularly in open-skill environments. Ren et al. (15) conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies and found that athletes outperformed non-athletes in inhibitory control and working memory, with open-skill athletes (e.g., basketball, soccer) showing higher cognitive flexibility than those in closed-skill disciplines. Enriquez-Geppert et al. (16) similarly identified EF components, particularly working memory updating and set-shifting, as central to cognitive performance in multitasking contexts, which may be analogous to demands in fast-paced sports. While Barcelos et al. (17) emphasized EF impairments among combat athletes following concussions, their findings highlight the sensitivity of EF to intensive physical stress. Adithyan et al. (18) noted that elite teams have begun using AI-based systems to monitor and train attention, task switching, and decision-making speed. Although Martinez (19) did not assess EF directly, the study noted demographic patterns in skill-based sports that suggest a sociocognitive dimension to performance. Mendes et al. (49) further proposed that IGF1 gene polymorphisms linked to neuroplasticity may play a role in physical and cognitive adaptability, though without direct EF measurement.

The current status of research suggests that cognitively demanding, open-skill sports like table tennis may be meaningfully associated with executive function and other developmental indicators in youth. However, most prior work has examined these domains in isolation, limiting our understanding of how motor, cognitive, and psychosocial processes interrelate. To address this gap, the present study investigates behavioral correlates of table tennis participation in school-aged children using a concept mapping framework. This approach enables the integration of multiple behavioral domains and allows for the visualization of complex interdependencies without assuming direct causality.

The mean age of participants was 11.2 ± 2.1 years, with boys and girls exhibiting similar distributions (see Figure 2). Training history averaged 18.4 ± 7.6 months, with boys training slightly longer than girls (18.8 ± 7.4 vs. 18.0 ± 7.8 months). Socioeconomic status distribution showed 32.1% of boys and 28.2% of girls in the low-income category, while 48.1% of boys and 51.3% of girls were from middle-income backgrounds. Visual acuity assessments indicated ~70% had 20/20 vision, while ~9% had vision worse than 20/40. All p-values were adjusted using the Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) method for multiple comparisons. Findings reported as statistically significant survived FDR-corrected thresholds of q < 0.05 unless otherwise noted.

Males and females exhibited broadly comparable performance across motor, cognitive, and social domains. However, females demonstrated slightly greater Stroop interference reduction (Δ = 23.2 ms, p = 0.042) and higher cooperation scores on SSBS-2 (p = 0.038), while males outperformed on agility tests (Δ = 0.7 s, p = 0.049). No significant interactions between sex and training duration were observed in regression or SEM models, and subgroup comparisons were exploratory to avoid confounding. Age-stratified analyses revealed distinct trends: children aged 11–14 years showed stronger training-related associations with executive functioning (e.g., WCST completion time, Stroop interference), whereas younger children (8–10 years) showed greater gains in motor coordination (e.g., agility, balance). These effects are summarized in Supplementary Table S1.

Participants identified five thematic clusters influencing table tennis participation. Motor Skill Development received the highest agreement (M = 4.3, κ = 0.91), reflecting strong consensus around the role of agility, coordination, and balance in youth engagement (Figure 3). Cognitive Functioning (M = 4.1, κ = 0.88), including executive processes like working memory and attention, was also rated highly. Psychological Factors (M = 4.2) and Social Behavior (M = 3.9) were perceived as essential for motivation and peer interaction, while Structural Barriers (M = 4.0) highlighted concerns around access, equipment, and cost. All clusters showed high inter-rater reliability (κ ≥ 0.85), indicating stable categorization.

Hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) condensed these into three broader macro-clusters. Motor Performance achieved the strongest agreement (κ = 0.89) and the highest cluster stability (Supplementary Figure S1), underscoring its foundational role in participation. Cognitive Processing and Psychosocial Development followed closely in internal consistency. Motor-related clusters also had the highest rating consensus (87% ≥ 4), whereas cognitive and psychosocial clusters, while still rated highly, showed slightly more variability. Final cluster labels were retained following participant consensus review, with label agreement exceeding 90% across domains (Supplementary Figure S2).

Reaction time and agility test performance were negatively correlated with training duration (p < 0.001) (Table 2). Hand-eye coordination metrics varied: hit accuracy positively correlated (r = 0.46, p < 0.001), while response latency was negatively correlated (r = −0.41, p < 0.001). Movement variability showed a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.36, p < 0.001).

Postural stability was inversely correlated with training duration (Supplementary Table S2). CoP displacement decreased with training, both with eyes open (r = −0.39, p < 0.001) and closed (r = −0.42, p < 0.001). Single-leg stance showed similar trends on the dominant (r = −0.44, p < 0.001) and non-dominant leg (r = −0.46, p < 0.001). Mediolateral and anteroposterior CoP displacement also declined (r = −0.40, r = −0.43, p < 0.001), indicating improved stability with more prolonged training exposure.

Cognitive and psychological performance showed consistent associations with training duration. On the WCST, reductions in total and perseverative errors, as well as faster completion times (r values ranging from −0.35 to −0.40, p < 0.001), suggested improved cognitive flexibility and rule-shifting ability (Figure 4). Similar patterns emerged on the Stroop task, where reduced response times and interference effects (r ≈ −0.45) indicated enhanced attentional control (Figure 5). Eye-tracking metrics further supported these findings: children with more training exhibited better anticipatory gaze and fixation stability (r > 0.39), along with faster saccadic shifts, reflecting more efficient visual processing (Figure 6).

Psychological self-efficacy (SESC) improved with training (r = 0.41), especially in persistence and problem-solving domains. Stress, as measured by the PSQ-20, decreased across academic, peer, and competition-related dimensions (r ≈ −0.39), suggesting better emotional regulation. Social competence (SSBS-2) was higher among more experienced participants (r = 0.42), with notable gains in cooperation and peer engagement. Conversely, antisocial behaviors including aggression and withdrawal declined as training increased (r ≈ −0.43), pointing to more adaptive social adjustment (Supplementary Figure S3).

Longer training duration was a strong predictor of improved psychosocial outcomes, including higher self-efficacy (β = 0.39) and social competence (β = 0.41), along with lower antisocial behavior (β = −0.38) (Table 3). Socioeconomic status and peer acceptance contributed uniquely to self-efficacy, while competition-related stress elevated perceived stress levels, countered by a protective effect of SES. Social competence was enhanced by cooperation and peer acceptance, whereas aggression and withdrawal significantly predicted greater antisocial tendencies. All effects were statistically significant (p < 0.001), highlighting a coherent pattern of behavioral adaptation with extended training exposure.

Structural equation modeling revealed a coherent pathway linking physical, cognitive, and psychological domains (Table 4). Motor performance strongly predicted cognitive function (β = 0.49), which in turn contributed to greater psychological resilience (β = 0.31). Social engagement provided an additional positive influence on resilience (β = 0.28) and was itself predicted by motor performance (β = 0.37). Training history emerged as the primary upstream factor, exerting the strongest influence on motor performance (β = 0.53), suggesting a cascading developmental effect from sustained physical training to higher-order psychosocial outcomes.

Indirect pathways further supported the developmental cascade linking training to psychosocial outcomes (Table 5). Motor performance influenced psychological resilience through its positive effect on social engagement (β = 0.24, 95% CI [0.10, 0.38]), while cognitive function contributed to resilience indirectly by reducing perceived stress (β = 0.20, 95% CI [0.07, 0.34]). Training history also exerted an indirect effect on cognitive outcomes via motor performance (β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.15, 0.42]), underscoring its foundational role in shaping both physical and cognitive development.

Moderation analysis revealed contextual factors that influenced the strength of key relationships (Table 6). Higher stress levels weakened the link between motor performance and psychological resilience (β = −0.22), suggesting that physiological gains translate less effectively into emotional coping under pressure. Socioeconomic status amplified the effect of social engagement on psychological growth (β = 0.26), with stronger benefits observed in higher-SES children. Cognitive load reduced the impact of training history on cognitive performance (β = −0.23), indicating that heavy mental demands may blunt the cognitive returns of physical training.

The structural equation model demonstrated excellent overall fit (χ²/df = 2.35, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.04), confirming the robustness of the hypothesized pathways (Figure 7; Table 7). Direct effects supported strong links from motor skill performance to both cognitive and psychosocial outcomes. Mediation paths showed that cognitive function partially explained the effect of motor skills on self-efficacy, while moderation analysis revealed that social engagement buffered the relationship between cognitive function and perceived stress. The model captures the integrated influence of physical, cognitive, and social processes in table tennis-trained children.

Children with longer training history demonstrated more socially engaged behaviors during play. Higher levels of eye contact, verbal turn-taking, and cooperative interaction were all positively associated with training duration (r values = 0.39–0.45), suggesting enhanced communication and group coordination. Increased non-verbal gestures and more frequent offers of assistance (r ≈ 0.38–0.41) further reflected prosocial responsiveness. Proximity to peers was negatively correlated (r = −0.36), indicating that more experienced players maintained closer physical alignment during cooperative tasks potentially reflecting greater social attunement and spatial awareness.

This study found that table tennis participation was consistently associated with enhanced motor coordination, executive functioning, and psychosocial adaptation in school-aged children. Children with longer training exposure demonstrated more efficient reaction times, improved postural control, and greater visual–motor integration. In the cognitive domain, fewer perseverative errors and faster Stroop responses suggest greater flexibility and attentional control, which may reflect the complex, fast-paced, and anticipatory demands of table tennis play. Socially, higher levels of self-efficacy and cooperation, alongside reduced antisocial behaviors, indicate that sustained participation may foster adaptive interpersonal behaviors and emotional regulation. These findings align with prior studies reporting psychosocial and cognitive benefits in open-skill sports and support the relevance of table tennis as a developmental platform.

The observed gains in motor performance parallel prior findings by Gu et al. (24), who reported improvements in balance and object control; our data (e.g., enhanced agility) align with these outcomes. Consistent with this pattern, Ochs et al. (33) found that table tennis athletes exhibit superior reaction speed and footwork precision, underscoring the sport’s contribution to dynamic motor efficiency through complex, repetitive movement patterns. Mechanistically, such improvements may be driven by high-speed bilateral footwork, anticipatory motor planning, and proprioceptive feedback loops inherent to play. During rallies, athletes continuously adapt to unpredictable ball trajectories, necessitating rapid weight shifts, directional changes, and fine-motor corrections—processes associated with increased cerebellar engagement and enhanced sensorimotor integration (31, 54). Prior findings support our psychosocial results. Martin-Rodriguez et al. (5) reported lower cortisol and higher self-efficacy in table tennis players, while Khudair et al. (32) emphasized improved social regulation. In our sample, longer training duration was associated with greater self-efficacy, better cooperation, and reduced antisocial behaviors. These trends suggest the sport may promote psychosocial development, particularly emotional regulation and prosocial interaction.

Our findings contribute to the literature highlighting the school-based benefits of table tennis. Consistent with prior work showing improved physical education engagement and focus (6) and enhanced postural control (24), we observed parallel associations, including faster reaction times and greater postural stability, indicating that table tennis may serve as a practical intervention for bolstering children’s physical and attentional outcomes. The observed gains in postural control further position the sport as a potential support for children with motor or visual challenges. Stability improvements reported with targeted table tennis drills (31) align with our reductions in center-of-pressure displacement. Moreover, visual–motor enhancements—such as improved fixation (r = 0.39) and reduced saccadic latency—mirror findings by Liu et al. (11), suggesting benefits for neuromuscular and oculomotor development.

Our findings converge with prior work indicating that table tennis participation supports physical health, motor performance, and visual function while posing minimal musculoskeletal risk (23, 40, 41). Pradas et al. (4) reported that table tennis players exhibited 5.3% higher bone mineral content and lower fat mass than non-players, underscoring the sport’s contribution to healthy body composition. Similarly, in our sample, longer training duration correlated positively with agility and grip strength, suggesting benefits for endurance and coordination rather than muscular hypertrophy. Complementing these results, Liu et al. (11) documented gains in visual acuity and slower myopia progression among players; we observed parallel improvements, including greater fixation stability and reduced saccadic latency. Notably, Driban et al. (35) found no elevated risk of thumb osteoarthritis in table tennis athletes, aligning with our evidence that sustained participation does not compromise joint health, thereby supporting the sport’s safety and long-term sustainability.

The SEM results indicated that motor performance predicted both cognitive function and social engagement, which in turn predicted psychological resilience. These findings align with Cavalcante Neto et al. (34), who reported gains in motor planning and cognitive processing following table tennis training, and with Luca et al. (25), who observed improved cardiovascular efficiency and reduced anxiety, highlighting the sport’s multidimensional benefits. Moderation analyses further clarified boundary conditions: higher stress attenuated the association between motor skills and resilience, whereas higher socioeconomic status strengthened the link between social engagement and psychological growth. Consistent with Khudair et al. (32), academic stressors diminished training-related cognitive gains. Collectively, the pattern suggests that improved motor performance may augment cognitive function and social interaction by engaging neural circuits supporting executive control, coordination, and social cognition; these enhancements, in turn, appear to cultivate psychological resilience through strengthened self-regulation and adaptive coping under training-induced stress.

The moderation results underscore the salience of contextual supports. Elevated stress attenuated training-related gains, suggesting that chronic cognitive load competes for attentional resources and impedes consolidation of executive processes (42–47). In contrast, higher socioeconomic status may amplify benefits by enabling structured routines, adequate nutrition, and supportive home environments. These patterns highlight the need for holistic program design that incorporates stress-regulation strategies and promotes equitable access to maximize developmental returns from sport-based interventions (25, 55). A key contribution of this study is the integration of concept mapping with structural equation modeling: concept mapping delineated participant-perceived domains across motor, cognitive, and social dimensions, whereas SEM quantified their interrelations. This dual-method framework offers a novel approach for modeling multidimensional developmental outcomes in sports interventions and is well suited to informing school- and community-based program design.

This study suggests that table tennis may serve as a scalable, low-cost intervention to support motor, cognitive, and psychosocial development in children. Associations with agility, attentional control, and social engagement reflect the sport’s integrative demands. While the cross-sectional design limits causal interpretation, the pattern of results highlights the potential of table tennis to complement existing school-based developmental programs, particularly in settings where time, equipment, and space are limited. Longer training durations were associated with faster reaction times, improved postural control, enhanced Stroop and WCST performance, and superior anticipatory gaze. Social–emotional indicators such as self-efficacy, cooperation, and stress regulation also improved. Taken together, these findings position table tennis as a promising developmental platform that integrates neuromuscular coordination, cognitive flexibility, and peer engagement. Its scalability and adaptability make it a viable candidate for integration into urban educational settings, particularly where time and physical space are constrained.