Police officers are critical in protecting and serving our communities. They are subjected to unique demands while performing various tasks (e.g., running, jumping, pulling, pushing, and carrying) in unpredictable work environments and potentially volatile situations (1–3). Police officers may quickly shift from an inactive state to maximal physical exertion (i.e., from seated in their car to a foot pursuit) (4, 5), all the while performing these activities under load (6, 7). Thus, physical fitness is crucial for the demands of law enforcement (8). However, during most shifts, they primarily engage in sedentary behavior, such as sitting in a patrol car for extended periods, sitting in meetings, or doing administrative tasks (2). Due to extended inactive periods, followed by acute heavy physical exertion (i.e., high-speed driving, body drags, obstacle clearance, and subject apprehension), there is increased risk for sudden cardiac death. This enhanced strain on the cardiovascular system is even more detrimental for police officers with lower fitness levels (1, 2, 9).

Police officers are at an increased risk of obesity, hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) than the general population (4, 10–12). On average, 40% of officers are obese, about 5% higher than the national average, 74% classify with elevated-to-stage two hypertension, and 27% have three or more CVD risk factors (3, 13). More specifically, 83% of officers in the Midwest were considered overweight or obese, with similar findings in retired officers (4). High sedentary time, physical inactivity, and poor dietary habits exacerbate the prevalence of obesity in law enforcement (3, 13, 14). In a study by Vuković et al. (15), researchers found that frequency and volume of leisure time physical activity (LTPA) correlated with lower levels of body fat percentage (BF%) (r = −0.306, p ≤ 0.001 and r = −0.370, p ≤ 0.001) respectively. The researchers found that the ideal volume of 150–300 min per week was associated with reduced BF% (15). Additionally, Kukić et al. (16) found that 73.3% of the sixty general police officers were categorized as sedentary with ≤149 min of physical activity (PA) per week, and only 21.7% were considered moderately active with 150–300 min of PA per week. Concurrently, higher levels of obesity correlate with reduced levels of overall fitness (14) and increased risk for cardiometabolic disease (17). Body composition assessment can help recognize and monitor the effects that PA and dietary habits have on police officers (16), which can be done alongside a physical fitness assessment.

Different law enforcement agencies utilize a variety of tests of physical ability or fitness standards. Some of these testing procedures include an occupational readiness assessment that incorporates climbing stairs, jumping, crawling, and changes in direction, or the Cooper standard test (e.g., push-ups, sit-ups, vertical jump, 300 m run, and 2.4 km run). Although no universally accepted physical fitness standards exist for incumbent officers, departments commonly use an occupational readiness assessment to assess physical fitness and fit for duty when returning from injury (18–20). Additionally, a multitude of assessments have been associated with different performance and body composition measurements, indicating the importance of finding main factors influencing testing performance. In a study by Rhodes et al. (21), 55% of the variance, when completing a physical abilities test, was accounted for by maximal aerobic power and anaerobic capacity with a sample mean V˙O_2max and BF% of 42.6 mL kg min⁻¹ and 22.9%, respectively. Similarly, Beck et al. (18) found aerobic endurance and agility performance contributed to physical ability test times. The researchers also found that body mass (BM) and abdominal circumference were related to higher completion times. Dawes et al. (8) found the multi-stage fitness test, dominant hand grip strength, and body mass index (BMI) had significant relationships during the performance of a physical abilities test with highway patrol officers. Together, these studies indicate that factors related to body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness may be influential to on-duty task of law enforcement officers.

Collectively, reduced cardiovascular fitness, increased obesity, and physical inactivity are critically essential aspects of occupational health, given body composition and PA level contribute to occupational-specific tasks. This study aimed to determine if cardiovascular fitness, body composition, and physical activity levels could predict performance in a Midwest Police Department’s Physical Readiness Assessment (PRA). We hypothesized that police officers with higher levels of cardiovascular fitness, less sedentary time, greater moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and lower BF% would perform better on the PRA.

Thirty incumbent police officers (33.9 ± 8.3 years; female = 5) completed the study. These police officers had various duties in the department, which included: uniformed patrol (n = 15), school resource officers (n = 1), special weapons and tactics (n = 1), drug/gang units (n = 4), detective (plain clothed) (n = 4), community policing (n = 4), and administration (n = 1). T-tests reported significant differences in height, body mass, fat-free mass (FFM), and hand grip strength between females and males for the total sample and when outliers were removed (p < 0.05). It is important to note that when outliers were removed there was a significant difference in PA-R between males and females. T-tests reported significant differences in PA-R, MVPA and estimated V˙O_2max based on PRA completion time (Table 1). When the outliers were removed MVPA was no longer significant. PA data is described in Figure 1. Using the World Health Organization BMI categories, three officers (10%) were classified as normal weight, 15 (50%) were classified as overweight, and 12 (40%) officers as obese. Descriptive data for the sample are included in Table 1.

Two linear regression models were used to identify predictors of PRA time to completion. The first model used BF%, FFM, BMI, hand grip strength, years on the job, WST, WDST, and MVPA as independent variables. This model demonstrated that 32% of the variance in PRA time could be predicted by BF% [F (1, 29) = 13.31, R² = 0.32, p < 0.01] (Table 2). Comparatively, when outliers were removed, 26% of the variance in PRA time could be predicted by BF% [F (1, 26) = 8.881, R² = 0.262, p < 0.01] (Table 2). When estimated V˙O_2max was added as an independent variable to the regression model (Table 3), only estimated V˙O_2max was predictive of PRA time to completion [F (1, 29) = 22.84, R² = 0.45, p < 0.001]. Additionally, only estimatedV̇O_2max was predictive of PRA time to completion, contributing 37% of the variance to the model when outliers were removed [F (1, 26) = 14.829, R² = 0.37, p < 0.001].

There were significant correlations between estimated BF% and PRA time (r = 0.57, p < 0.001), PA-R and MVPA (r = 0.71, p < 0.001), BF % and WDST (r = −0.61, p < 0.001), hand grip and FFM (r = 0.60, p < 0.001) and PA-R and PRA time (r = −0.36, p < 0.05). When the three outliers were removed from the sample, BM and PA-R became significant (r = −0.38, p < 0.05). However, both age and estimated V˙O_2max (r = −0.35, p = 0.08) and MVPA and estimated V˙O_2max (r = 0.20, p = 0.330) was nonsignificant. Table 4 reports additional correlations between anthropometric, physical fitness, and PA variables.

The current study sought to determine if cardiovascular fitness, body composition, and PA levels could be used as predictors of PRA time to completion in Midwest police officers. Our data demonstrates that BF% and estimated V˙O_2max were predictors of PRA time. These findings are similar to previous research (8, 18), indicating that individual officers who are more fit and who possess a lower BF% may perform better on completing an occupational physical abilities assessment.

The current department utilized a recommended PRA time to completion standard of 4:40 (minutes: seconds) or 280 s. As a result, 17 officers completed the PRA, and 13 did not meet the PRA in the allotted time. These results agree with Dawes et al. (8), where high and low performers were identified based on completion or non-completion of various physical abilities and multi-stage fitness tests. It should be noted that the officers in the current study did complete the assessment in gym clothes compared to their duty gear, which the authors suspect the times would have been slower with the addition of body armor, duty belt, uniform, and boots.

The officers who completed the PRA in the allotted time (n = 17) were estimated to have a V˙O_2max of 46.5 ± 5.2 mL kg⁻¹ min⁻¹, compared with those that did not complete the PRA in the allotted time (V˙O_2max of 39.0 ± 5.3 mL kg⁻¹ min⁻¹). In comparison, current V˙O_2max recommendations for firefighters is 42 mL kg⁻¹ min⁻¹ based on the anticipated job tasks, while dressed in personal protective equipment and exposed to various environmental stressors (29). Based on the similarities police officers share in occupational demands to firefighters, sharing this standard between police officers and firefighters is supported (30). Thus, there should be a recommended minimal V˙O_2max measure for police officers.

Even with a 7.6% error reported with subjective PA-R (28), the recommendation of 42 mL kg⁻¹ min⁻¹ significantly determines officers meeting the standard in the PRA in this sample (p = 0.002). Assessing cardiovascular fitness in police officers is commonly completed through the 2.4 km run test or the 20-meter multi-stage fitness test (31). The results from these fitness tests can be utilized in formulas to estimate V˙O_2max (32, 33). Should these methods continue to be used to assess aerobic and work capacities, they should also be used to assist in creating a fitness plan to strengthen the cardiovascular health of these officers. If law enforcement departments choose only to use an occupational readiness assessment to measure overall fitness, the time to completion standards should evoke a similar V˙O₂ response with the recommended standard of 42 mL kg⁻¹ min⁻¹.

This exploratory study highlights that lower BF% was the best predictor for faster PRA completion times, where BF% accounted for 32% of the variance. Additionally, officers that met the PRA time standard had significantly less BF% than those who were unable to complete the PRA in the allotted time. Prior research has found that BF% negatively correlated with vertical jump performance and estimated oxygen consumption and positively correlated with 2.4 km run time (34). Another study reported decreases in vertical jump performance and stride velocity in law enforcement recruits due to a 9 kg increase in load carriage weight (considered non-FFM) (35). Furthermore, with part-time special weapons and tactics officers, higher BF% resulted in slower obstacle course times (36). Thus, our data support the literature that a high %BF is associated with slower PRA completion times.

These officers’ decreased WDST and hand grip strength levels were associated with lower BF% and higher FFM, respectively. Thus, the officers with higher PA and greater muscle strength experienced lower BF%. Therefore, exercise programs for officers should focus on developing muscular strength and aerobic training. Previous research found that the ideal volume of 150–300 min per week of PA was associated with reduced BF% (15). Without any PA recommendations for officers, considerations should accommodate the physical inactivity that can be prevalent during their shifts. The current study highlights the need to focus on initiatives that may decrease BF.

In this sample, only five police officers reported 30 min or more of daily leisure MVPA. Three police officers were removed as outliers (with >100 min of MVPA), lowering the average to 17.6 ± 14.1 min. Nine officers reported engaging in ten or fewer minutes of daily leisure MVPA. Similarly, 73.3% of police officers categorized with the IPAQ were considered sedentary with ≤149 min of total MVPA per week (16). However, it is essential to note that subjective assessments tend to conform to the social desirability bias (37). This might be even more pronounced in the sedentary time as the officers had roughly 5–7 h per day of sedentary time during the weekday and weekend days, which could be relatively low with the sedentary nature of the job.

The results of the current study indicate that officers should focus on improving V˙O_2max, BF%, and MVPA to shorten their PRA completion times and to improve overall physical readiness to perform on-duty tasks (e.g., running, pulling, pushing, lifting, and carrying). Appropriately structured wellness initiatives within the law enforcement community should target improvement in these outcomes to ensure officers possess a certain level of cardiovascular fitness to perform their duties safely and to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease development.

The findings of this study provided more understanding of the roles of cardiovascular fitness, body composition, and PA in improving occupational readiness assessments. Officers have demanding occupations and should maintain adequate levels of physical fitness as a part of their job performance and health outcomes. Future research should include a graded exercise test with measured V˙O_2max, for cardiorespiratory fitness. This can be in addition to the V˙O_2max estimations from completion of the 2.4 km run or the 20 meter multi-stage fitness test. The data supports the need for wellness and fitness initiatives in law enforcement agencies focused on increasing cardiovascular fitness and decreasing BF% while increasing PA to ensure optimal performance in policing duties and overall health. Future research should include modification of the factors outlined in this study to improve officer-focused occupational readiness assessments, identify approaches/methods for decreasing periods of physical inactivity while on-duty, and engage in more PA for officers off-duty.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by North Dakota State University Institutional Review Board. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

ND, AB, and KH contributed to the conception and design of the study and contributed to the visualization. ND performed the investigation. ND, KD, AB, and KH performed the statistical analysis. ND, MS, KD, KH, and AB contributed to interpreting the data. ND and AB wrote the first draft of the manuscript. MS, KD, and MC wrote sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.