Front. Public Health Frontiers in Public Health Front. Public Health 2296-2565 Frontiers Media S.A. 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1090021 Public Health Original Research Prevalence of self-medication and associated factors among female students of health science colleges at Majmaah University: A cross-sectional study Loni Shamshad Begum 1 * Eid Alzahrani Raed 1 Alzahrani Mansour 2 Khan Mohammad Owais 3 Khatoon Rafia 1 Abdelrahman Huda Hakim 2 Abd-Elhaleem Zeinab A. 1 4 Alhaidari Munira Mohammed 5 1Department of Basic Medical Science, College of Medicine, Majmaah University, Al Majmaah, Saudi Arabia 2Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, Majmaah University, Al Majmaah, Saudi Arabia 3Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Shri Devi Institute of Technology, Mangalore, India 4Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, College of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt 5College of Medicine, Majmaah University, Al Majmaah, Saudi Arabia

Edited by: Riyadh K. Lafta, Al-Mustansiriya University, Iraq

Reviewed by: Saajid Hameed, Indira Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, India; Vahid Kohpeima Jahromi, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Iran

 *Correspondence: Shamshad Begum Loni ✉ S.loni@mu.edu.sa

This article was submitted to Public Health Education and Promotion, a section of the journal Frontiers in Public Health

 16 02 2023 2023 11 1090021 04 11 2022 16 01 2023 Copyright © 2023 Loni, Eid Alzahrani, Alzahrani, Khan, Khatoon, Abdelrahman, Abd-Elhaleem and Alhaidari. 2023 Loni, Eid Alzahrani, Alzahrani, Khan, Khatoon, Abdelrahman, Abd-Elhaleem and Alhaidari

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

 Introduction

Globally, the prevalence of self-medication among young people has increased exponentially. Due to the basic knowledge and easy access to medicines, undergraduate students at health science colleges are likely to self-medicate. This research was undertaken to assess self-medication prevalence and its contributing factors among female undergraduate students in health science colleges at Majmaah University, Saudi Arabia.

 Materials and methods

A descriptive, cross-sectional study involving 214 female students from the Majmaah University in Saudi Arabia's health science colleges—Medical: (82, 38.31%) and Applied Medical Science College (132, 61.68%)—was conducted. A self-administered questionnaire with sociodemographic information, drugs used, and reasons for self-medication was used for the survey. Non-probability sampling techniques were used to recruit participants.

 Results

Of the 214 female participants, 173, 80.84 % (medical: 82, 38.31% and applied medical science: 132, 61.68%) confirmed that they were on self-medication. The majority of participants (42.1%) were between the ages of 20 and 21.5 years (mean ± SD: 20.81 ± 1.4). The main reasons for self-medication were quick relief from the illness (77.5%) followed by saving time (76.3%), minor illnesses (71.1%), self-confidence (56.7%), and laziness (56.7%). The use of leftover drugs at home was common among applied medical science students (39.9%). The main indication for self-medication included menstrual problems (82.7 %), headache (79.8%), fever (72.8%), pain (71.1%), and stress (35.3%). The most common drugs used included antipyretic and analgesics (84.4%), antispasmodics (78.9%), antibiotics (76.9%), antacids (68.2%), multivitamins, and dietary supplements (66.5%). On the contrary, the least used drugs were antidepressants, anxiolytics, and sedatives (3.5, 5.8, and 7.5 %, respectively). Family members were the main source of information for self-medication (67.1%), followed by self-acquired knowledge (64.7%), social media (55.5%), and least were friends (31.2%). For adverse effects of the medication, the majority of them consulted the physician (85%) followed by consulting the pharmacist (56.7%) and switched to other drugs or decreased drug dosage. Quick relief, saving time, and minor illness were the main reasons for self-medication among health science college students. It is recommended to conduct awareness programs, workshops, and seminars to educate on the benefits and adverse effects of self-medication.

 quick relief laziness antispasmodics adverse effect health science colleges self-medication source of medication 1. Introduction

To be in good health is an essential component of one's life, so having access to an efficient healthcare system in a community is important. Most of the common health ailments are treated by the individual themselves without medical supervision, termed self-medication (SM) (1). According to World Health Organization (WHO) definition, “Self-medication involves the use of medicinal products by the consumer to treat self-diagnosed disorders or symptoms, or the intermittent or continued use of medication prescribed by a physician for chronic or recurrent diseases or symptoms” (1, 2).

Self-medication (SM) is common in both developed and developing countries, with prevalence rates ranging from 25.6 to 73.6%. It is also associated with a positive perception of the country's healthcare system (2).

When practiced effectively, SM could benefit both the individual and the healthcare system by potentially saving lives in emergency situations, minimizing long waiting times for proper medical assistance, and also lowering healthcare costs. On the contrary, SM may increase risks such as unnecessary use of medication, extended duration of consumption, drug–drug interactions, and polypharmacy.

Self-medication increases the risk of using illegal drugs, developing drug dependence, and masking the underlying medical conditions, all of which can compromise human safety, leading to drug resistance, and making diagnosis more challenging (3, 4). According to the researchers, the use of over-the-counter medications is common and inappropriate among undergraduate students in universities around the world (3, 5, 6). Owing to the overwhelming use of social media, students are now relying more on the internet than healthcare professionals in their health-related information (4, 7, 8). As a result, more college students are practicing SM to treat self-diagnosed illnesses (9). SM has a greater impact on students with a medical knowledge background as they have easy access to information from their curriculum and literature (10). Previous studies on SM practice among medical students reported that the prevalence differed in developing and developed countries (6–11). Easy availability of physician samples from pharmaceutical representatives and the white coat effect of being health science students ensure trouble-free access to drugs from pharmacies (12). Studies have shown that the practice of SM is influenced by multiple factors such as education, family, friends, and the rule and regulations of that particular country. Medical textbooks, articles, and social media marketing strategies of pharmaceuticals persuade participants to contemplate purchasing medications without prescription rather than seeking the advice of a healthcare professional. Previous research studies have shown that the causes of SM include minor illnesses, previous experience in treating similar illnesses, financial concerns, and a scarcity of physicians. Medical textbooks, articles, and social media marketing strategies of pharmaceuticals persuade participants to contemplate purchasing medications without prescription rather than seeking the advice of a healthcare professional. Previous research studies have shown that the causes of SM include minor illnesses, previous experience treating similar illnesses, financial concerns, and a scarcity of physicians (13). However, there is a paucity of studies that show the prevalence of SM among undergraduate students of health science colleges in Majmaah, Saudi Arabia. Hence, the study was designed to assess the prevalence of self-medication practices, associated factors, and knowledge of adverse effects of drugs among female students of Medical and Applied medical science colleges at Majmaah University, Majmaah, Saudi Arabia. Thus, creating awareness of the benefits and adverse effects of SM and its impact on the health of the young generation in society.

 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study design and sample size

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted from September to November 2021. The study was designed using a simple random sampling technique. Female undergraduate students from level 1 to level 5 were grouped into medical and applied medical science student groups. The applied medical science group included students from Nursing, Physiotherapy, Radiology, and Medical laboratory colleges.

Using Raosoft® software, the sample size of 278 was calculated taking 1,000 as the total female student population of health science colleges of Majmaah University, with a 5% margin of error, 95% confidence interval, and 50% response distribution. By adding 10% as the non-response rate, the sample size was increased from 278 to 306. Ten questionnaires were distributed among the female students. Only 290 students (93.6%) agreed to participate. However, 214 (73.8%) students submitted a completely filled questionnaire. Of 214 participants, 173, 80.84 % (medical: 82, 38.31% and applied medical science: 132, 61.68%) confirmed that they were on self-medication 3 months prior to the start of the survey. The majority of participants (42.1%) were between the age group 20 and 21.5 years (mean ± SD: 20.81 ± 1.4). To collect data, a verified 50-item self-administered questionnaire form with six domains: sociodemographic, the need for self-medication, indications, sources of knowledge, medications used, and attitude toward an adverse effect of drug reaction was used. Both English and Arabic versions of the questionnaire forms were used to avoid language-based bias. A pilot study was done to assess the validity of the questionnaire. The reliability of 81.9% was observed using Cronbach's alpha test. Before starting the procedure, participants were debriefed about the purpose of the study followed by providing written consent. A simple randomized study design was done.

 2.2. Inclusion/exclusion criteria

All female students from medical and applied medical science colleges in the main building of Majmaah University willing to provide consent were included in the study. Those who were absent during the data collection period were excluded from the study. Students who were unable to submit the completed questionnaires were counted as non-respondents.

 2.3. Ethical approval

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Majmaah University (MUREC-Dec.1 5/COM-2 0 20/13-1)-2020/174/021). The confidentiality of information was assured.

 2.4. Data analysis

Microsoft Excel was used for data collection. Statistical software IBM® SPSS Statistics, version 25 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA) was used to perform descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage (%), mean ± SD, and distribution (skewness and kurtosis) were used to present data using a significance level of p ≤ 0.05. Categorical variables were assessed using frequencies and percentages, through Univariate analysis. Analytical statistics were performed using odds ratio (OR), 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and logistic regression. Using cross-tabulation, the chi-square test was used to compare the variables between medical and applied medical college students with self-medication. The variables were correlated using Pearson correlation. Tables were used to summarize the findings.

 3. Results

Of the 290 female participants who agreed to participate, 214 (73.8%) completed the survey questionnaire with a skewness of 0.66 and kurtosis of 0.16, which was submitted for data analysis. Preceding 3 months of the survey, 80.84% (N = 173) participants had self-medicated, while 19.16% (N = 41) did not self-medicate or (odds ratio): 1.43; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.69–2.95; P = 0.33). Most respondents (N = 90; 42.1%) were between 20 and 21.5 years old (mean ± SD, 20.81 ± 1.4). There was a statistically significant association between the SM and urban (N = 149, 86.6%) as a living area (OR=4.9; 95%CI=2.3–10.3; P<0.0001). Previous comorbid conditions documented among medical students (9.23%) were gastritis, allergy, otitis media, and pre-diabetic condition, while applied medical science students (5.6%) reported anemia, asthma, hyperthyroidism, and gallstones (Table 1).

Socio-demographic distribution among female participants (N = 214).

Self–medication 3 months preceding the research study
Variables Category Total Yes No Odds ratio (95% CI) P-value
No. (%) No. (%) No. (%)
College Medicine 82 (38.31) 69 (84.15) 13(15.86) 1.43 (0.69–2.95) 0.33
Applied medical science 132 (61.68) 104(78.79) 28(21.21)
Total 214 (100) 173 (80.84) 41(19.16)
Residence Urban 172 (80.4) 149 (86.6) 23 (13.4) 4.9 (2.3–10.3) < 0.000**
Rural 42 (19.6) 18 (42.9) 24 (57.1)
Lifestyle Family 194 (91.1) 158 (81.44) 36(18.55) 1.46 (0.5–4.3) 0.48
Friends /Alone 20 (9.4) 15 (75) 5 (23)
Chronic Illness Suffering 20 (9.35) 18 (90) 2 (10) 2.26 (0.5–10.17) 0.29
Not suffering 194 (90.65) 155 (79.89) 39(20.10)

P ≤ 0.001 is highly significant.

The most common reasons for SM were quick relief from illnesses (N = 134, 77.5 %; X2 = 4.09, P = 0.04), followed by saving time (N = 132, 76.3 %; X2, 3.8 P = 0.05), self-confidence (N = 98, 56.7%; X2, 6.2, P = 0.013), and laziness to visit the physician (N = 98,56.7%; X2, 6.2, P =0.013), all of which were statistically significant among the participants. Considering the disease as a minor illness (N = 123, 71.1 %; X2, 1.8 P =. 18) among the participants was statistically non-significant. The use of leftover drugs kept at home was more common among the applied medical science students (N = 45, 43.2%) as compared to medical students (N = 24, 34.8%) (Table 2).

Reasons for self-medication (N = 173).

Reasons College Yes No X2 P- value
No. % No. %
Time saving Medicine 58 84.1 11 15.9 3.8 0.05*
Applied medical science 74 71.2 30 28.9
Total 132 76.3 41 23.7
Illness as minor Medicine 53 76.8 16 23.2 1.8 0.18
Applied medical science 70 67.3 34 32.7
Total 123 71.1 50 28.9
Economical Medicine 21 12.1 48 27.7 1.91 0.17
Applied medical science 22 12.7 82 47.4
Total 43 24.9 130 75.1
Quick relief Medicine 48 69.6 21 30.4 4.09 0.04*
Applied medical science 86 82.7 18 17.3
Total 134 77.5 39 22.5
Previous experience Medicine 47 68.1 22 31.9 0.25 0.61
Applied medical science 67 64.4 37 35.6
Total 114 65.9 59 34.1
Easy availability of drugs Medicine 35 50.7 34 49.3 0.008 0.93
Applied medical science 52 50 52 50
Total 87 50.3 86 49.7
Free physician sample Medicine 16 23.2 53 76.8 0.03 0.87
Applied medical science 23 22.1 81 77.9
Total 39 22.5 134 77.5
Self-confidence Medicine 47 68.1 22 31.9 6.2 0.013*
Applied medical science 51 49.0 53 51.0
Total 98 56.7 75 43.3
Laziness to go to doctor/physician Medicine 47 68.1 22 31.9 6.2 0.013*
Applied medical science 51 29.5 53 30.6
Total 98 56.7 75 43.3
Use of leftover drugs kept at home Medicine 24 34.8 45 65.2 1.3 0.26
Applied medical science 45 43.2 59 56.7
Total 69 39.9 104 60.1

P ≤ 0.001 is highly significant.

The main indications for SM included menstrual problems (N = 143, 82.7 %; X2, 4.26; P =. 04), followed by headache (N = 138, 79.8%; X2, 3.8, P=. 05), fever (N = 126, 72.8 %; X2, 5.5, P =0.02), pain (N = 123, 71.1 %; X2, 4.41, P =0.04), stress (N = 61, 35.3 %; X2, 7.3, P=. 007) showed statistically significant among the participants. When compared, applied medical science students (N = 45, 43.3%) showed more stress than medical students (N = 16, 23.2%). On the contrary, indicators for SM such as fever (82.6%), pain (79.7%), headache (72.5%), and cough flu (58%) were more prevalent among medical students compared to applied medical students (Table 3).

Indications for self-medication (N = 173).

Indications Category Yes No X2 P-value
No. % No. %
Fever Medicine 57 82.6 12 17.4 5.5 0.02*
Applied medical science 69 66.3 35 33.7
Total 126 72.8 47 27.2
Pain Medicine 55 79.7 14 20.3 4.14 0.04*
Applied medical science 68 65.4 36 34.6
Total 123 71.1 50 28.9
Headache Medicine 50 72.5 19 27.5 3.8 0.05*
Applied medical science 88 84.6 16 15.4
Total 138 79.8 35 20.2
Cough and flu Medicine 40 58.0 29 42.0 0.82 0.37
Applied medical science 53 51.0 51 49.0
Total 93 53.8 80 46.2
GIT problems Medicine 16 23.2 53 76.8 0.03 0.87
Applied medical science 23 22.1 81 77.9
Total 39 22.5 134 77.5
Diarrhea or constipation Medicine 16 23.2 53 76.8 0.0002 1.0
Applied medical science 24 23.1 80 76.9
Total 40 23.1 133 76.9
Mental problems Medicine 11 15.9 58 47.8 0.01 0.9
Applied medical science 16 15.4 88 84.6
Total 27 15.6 146 84.4
Inability to sleep Medicine 17 24.6 52 75.4 1.6 0.2
Applied medical science 35 33.7 69 66.3
Total 52 30.1 121 69.9
Stress Medicine 16 23.2 53 76.8 7.3 0.007**
Applied medical science 45 43.3 59 56.7
Total 61 35.3 112 64.7
Avoid sleep during exams Medicine 14 20.3 55 79.7 1.95 0.2
Applied medical science 31 29.8 73 70.2
Total 45 26.0 128 74.0
Skin problems Medicine 25 36.2 44 63.8 1.04 0.3
Applied medical science 30 28.8 74 71.2
Total 55 31.8 118 68.2
Ear or eye problems Medicine 19 27.5 50 72.5 0.66 0.4
Applied medical science 23 22.1 81 77.8
Total 42 24.3 131 75.7
Allergy Medicine 12 17.4 57 82.6 0.0002 1.0
Applied medical science 18 17.3 86 82.7
Total 30 17.3 143 82.7
Menstrual problems Medicine 52 75.4 17 24.6 4.26 0.04*
Applied medical science 91 87.5 13 12.5
Total 143 82.7 30 17.3

P ≤ 0.05 is significant,

P ≤ 0.001 is highly significant.

As shown in Table 4, the most common types of drugs used for SM among participants included antipyretics and analgesics, followed by antispasmodics, antibiotics, antacids, multivitamins, and dietary supplements showed statistically significant.

Medications used for self-medication (N = 173).

Medicines Category Yes No X2 P-value
No. % No. %
Antipyretic analgesics Medicine 53 76.8 16 23.2 5.0 0.03*
Applied medical science 93 89.4 11 10.6
Total 146 84.4 27 12.1
Antibiotics Medicine 39 56.5 30 43.5 8.04 0.005**
Applied medical science 80 76.9 24 23.1
Total 119 68.8 54 31.2
Antihistamine Medicine 17 24.6 52 75.4 2.9 0.09
Applied medical science 15 14.4 89 85.6
Total 32 18.5 141 81.5
Antacids Medicine 27 39.1 42 60.9 44.8 < 0.0001**
Applied medical science 91 87.5 13 12.5
Total 118 68.2 55 31.8
Topical ointment Medicine 40 23.1 29 16.8 0.4 0.5
Applied medical science 55 31.8 49 28.3
Total 95 54.9 78 45.1
Multivitamins Medicine 40 58.0 29 42.0 3.7 0.05*
Applied medical science 75 72.1 29 27.9
Total 115 66.5 58 33.5
Antiemetics Medicine 7 10.1 62 89.9 0.01 0.93
Applied medical science 11 10.5 93 89.4
Total 18 10.4 155 89.6
Antispasmodic Medicine 45 65.2 24 34.8 4.0 0.05*
Applied medical science 82 78.9 22 21.2
Total 127 73.4 46 26.5
Sedative Medicine 7 10.1 62 89.9 1.1 0.29
Applied medical science 6 5.8 98 94.2
Total 13 7.5 160 92.5
Anxiolytics Medicine 5 7.2 64 92.7 0.97 0.32
Applied medical science 4 3.8 100 96.2
Total 9 5.2 164 94.8
Antidepressant Medicine 4 5.8 65 94.2 1.9 0.17
Applied medical science 2 1.9 102 98.1
Total 6 3.5 167 96.5
Skin care Medicine 51 73.9 18 26.1 0.015 0.90
Applied medical science 76 73.1 28 26.9
Total 127 73.4 46 26.6
Ear and eye drop Medicine 46 66.7 23 33.3 3.7 0.06
Applied medical science 54 51.9 50 48.1
Total 100 57.8 73 42.2

P ≤ 0.05 is significant,

P ≤ 0.001 is highly significant.

As shown in Table 4, the most common types of drugs used for SM among the participants were antipyretics and analgesics (N = 146;84.4 %; X2, 5.0, P =0.03) followed by antispasmodics (N = 127,73.2%; X2, 4.0, P = 0.05), antibiotics (N = 119;68.8 %; X2, 8.04, P = 0.005), antacids (N = 118;68.2 %; X2, 44.8 P < 0.00001), multivitamins, and dietary supplements (N = 115,66.5 %; X2, 3.7, p = 0.05)showed statistical significance. From Table 4, it is evident that applied medical students use more drugs compared to medical students. Also, it was observed that the drugs which are used for mental wellbeing such as sedatives, anxiolytics, and antidepressants were the least consumed. This may be correlated that mental-related drugs are being strictly dispensed in Saudi Arabia.

In the current study, it was observed that family members were the main source of knowledge and motivation for SM (N = 116,67.1 %; X2, 4.3, P = 0.038), followed by previous prescription (N = 115,66%; X2, 33.5, P = 0.48), self-acquired knowledge (N = 112, 64.7 %; X2, 9.2, P = 0.002), consulting pharmacist (N = 98,56.7 %; X2, 16.8, p <0.0001), social media (N = 96,55.5 %; X2, 32.7, p <0.0001), showing statistically significant (Table 5). As information sources for SM, applied medical students were found to consult pharmacists (N = 77, 74%) and family members (N = 76, 73.1%) more frequently than medical students (N = 29,42%) and (N = 40,58%), respectively. By contrast, medical students relied more on their own knowledge (N = 54, 78.9%) than applied medical students (N = 58, 55.8%), and they used previous prescriptions more frequently (48, 69.6%) than students of applied medical science (67, 64.4%) (Table 5).

Source of knowledge for self-medication (N = 173).

Information Category Yes No X2 P-value
No. % No. %
Self-acquired Medicine 54 78.3 15 21.7 9.2 0.002**
Applied medical science 58 55.8 46 44.2
Total 112 64.7 61 35.2
Consult Pharma source Medicine 29 42.0 40 58.0 17.9 < 0.0001**
Applied medical science 77 74.0 27 26.0
Total 106 61.3 67 38.8
Previous prescription Medicine 48 69.6 21 30.4 0.5 0.48
Applied medical science 67 64.4 37 35.6
Total 115 66.5 58 33.5
Family Medicine 40 58.0 29 42.0 4.3 0.038*
Applied medical science 76 73.1 28 26.9
Total 116 67.1 57 32.9
Friends Medicine 21 30.4 48 69.6 0.03 0.86
Applied medical science 33 31.7 71 68.3
Total 54 31.2 119 68.8
Social Medicine 20 29 49 71.0 32.7 < 0.0001**
Applied medical science 76 73.1 28 26.9
Total 96 55.5 77 44.5

P ≤ 0.05 is significant,

P ≤ 0.001 is highly significant.

It was documented that on getting the adverse effects for SM both groups (medical=55, 79.7% and applied medical science N = 92, 88.5%) consulted the physician or doctor (N = 147, 85%; X2, 2.49, p = 0.11). The statistically high significant observation was made among participants in consultation with the pharmacist for the remedy of the adverse reaction (N = 98, 56.7 %; X2, 16.8, P < 0.0001) followed by a switch to other drugs (N = 68, 39.3 %; X2, 7.97, p =0.005).

The majority of students documented that on getting adverse effects for SM, they would neither increase (N = 168, 97.1%); nor decrease (N = 151, 87.3 %), the dosage of the drugs (Table 6).

Alternative plan if adverse effect of SM (N = 173).

Alternative plan Category Yes No X2 P-value
No. % No. %
Consult doctor Medicine 55 79.7 14 20.3 2.49 0.11
Applied medical science 92 88.5 12 11.5
Total 147 85.0 26 15.0
Consult Pharma Medicine 26 69.2 43 62.3 16.8 0.00004**
Applied medical science 72 41.6 32 41.3
Total 98 56.7 75 43.4
Increase dosage Medicine 3 4.3 66 95.7 <5 unit
Applied medical science 2 1.9 102 98.1
Total 5 2.9 168 97.1
Decrease dosage Medicine 12 17.4 57 82.6 2.3 0.13
Applied medical science 10 9.6 94 90.4
Total 22 12.7 151 87.3
Switch to other drug Medicine 36 52.2 33 47.8 7.97 0.005**
Applied medical science 32 30.8 72 69.2
Total 68 39.3 105 60.7

P ≤ 0.001 is highly significant.

It is found that there is a strong correlation among variables for the causes of self-medication. The time saving was highly correlated with self-confidence and quick relief of minor diseases (Table 7).

Correlations (r) between the variables of reasons (N = 173).

A B C D E F G H I J
A 1 0.165* 0.213** 0.232** 0.197** 0.145 0.193* 0.351** 0.119 0.090
B 1 0.131 0.116 0.187* 0.106 −0.165* 0.081 0.386** 0.152*
C 1 0.262** 0.019 0.037 0.256** 0.178* 0.090 0.106
D 1 0.292** 0.228** 0.151* 0.179* 0.181* 0.113
E 1 0.358** 0.163* 0.197** 0.163* 0.206**
F 1 0.298** 0.133 0.098 0.270**
G 1 0.255** −0.031 0.226**
H 1 0.133 0.064
I 1 0.007
J 1

2-tailed:

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

Correlation is highly significant at the 0.01 level.

A, Time saving; E, Previous experience; I, Laziness to see the doctor.

B, Illness as minor; F, Availability of drugs; J, Use leftover drugs.

C, Economical; G, Free sample.

D, Quick relief; H, Self confidence.

 4. Discussion

The present study revealed that 80.84% (N = 173) of participants (medical 84.15 %, N = 69) and applied medical science (78.79%, N = 104) reported SM practiced 3 months prior to the study. However, several studies reported different prevalence rates ranging from 55 to 98% (5, 6, 12, 13). Irrational use of medicines has been shown to be most prevalent among university students and is a key issue for the WHO in its efforts to promote the rational use of medicines. Instinctively treating one's illness has evolved into a common human rights practice as SM (7). Younger generations presently have more convenient access to medicines than in the past, which could be harmful to their health, especially if they use inappropriate and ineffective medicines (8).

The main motivation for SM included a quasi-health issue, the urge for alleviating the symptoms, and the means to escape waiting hours at clinics (9).

4.1. Reasons for self-medication

The study revealed that the main reason for SM was time-saving among the participants (71.7%), followed by minor illness (71.1%), previous experience (65.9%), quick relief from ailments (59.0%), self-confidence (54.3%), laziness to consult the physician (50.9%), and the last reason was to use of leftover drugs (37.6%). Compared to applied medical science students, the prevalence of time-saving (84.1%), considering disease as a minor illness (76.8%), self-confidence (68.1%), and laziness to consult the physician (68.1%), was reported higher among medical college students. On the contrary, the prevalence of quick relief from ailments (82.7%) and the use of leftover drugs at home (43.2%) were common among applied medical science students. Students believed that it was convenient and easy to choose their medications on their own for mild illnesses for faster relief than visiting the physician. Other factors that may lead to SM were economic condition, previous experience, availability of medications, self-confidence, and laziness to consult the physician.

A statistical significant correlation between time saving, economical, minor illness, quick relief, previous experience, and self-confidence was observed in the present study. These findings are consistent with those of other studies which also mentioned time savings by not visiting the physician (13–16).

The high prevalence of SM among undergraduate students with a health science background may be attributed to the perception that they have sufficient knowledge and that an illness with mild symptoms will not have any serious effects. In the present study, the uses of leftover medications were more prevalent among the present study participants. A similar study in Nepal by Manandhar Shrestha et al. revealed that leftover medicines use was 22.6% as compared to the present study (39.9%), it was lower prevalent (17).

Leftover medication storage could promote irrational medication use. In comparison to nations with strict drug regulations, developing nations are more likely to encourage SM by using leftover medication due to economic factors.

Peer guidance and easy access to drugs were both considered to have an impact on SM in the present study. The causes of SM reported in this study were similar to those found in earlier studies, including prior knowledge, experience, recommendations, and guidance from pharmacists, friends, and family. The present survey results were consistent with research reported in Madinah, Saudi Arabia, by Alshahrani et al. (18).

 4.2. Indications for self-medication

Most of the participants in the survey revealed that they self-medicated for minor illnesses. Menstrual problems were the highest reported in the present study followed by headache, fever, pain, cough, and flu. Mental-related issues were the least prevalent in the present study. These findings were consistent with other studies (10, 11, 15, 19, 20). Prudent SM, particularly for minor and chronic health issues, may be beneficial to individuals as well as healthcare systems (21). Previous studies revealed SM was used to treat ailments, common of which were symptoms of the common cold such as aches and pains, nasal congestion, and seasonal allergies. These observations are consistent with the present study findings. Other studies considered indications of SM such as constipation, nausea, insomnia, fatigue, and skin rash ranging from 23 to 9.48% consistent with the present study (13, 17, 19, 21).

 4.3. Sources of drug information

In the present study, family members, previous prescriptions, and self-acquired knowledge were the main sources of SM. Self-acquired knowledge and previous prescription were highest among the medical students as compared to applied medical science students followed by the use of social media, and the least was advice from friends. While consulting the pharmacist, followed by motivation from social media and family was most common among the applied medical students as compared to medical students. The majority of the participants in the present study assumed that they have adequate knowledge of medications and diseases. These findings are consistent with a similar study conducted in Kerman by Zardosht et al., which indicated that students' knowledge about diseases and their treatment can persuade the use of SM (8, 11, 22).

There was also a strong agreement that pharmacists played a pivotal role in motivating the SM. Similar results were observed among University students from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Bahrain (13, 17, 23).

 4.4. Commonly used drugs

In the present study, compared to medical students, applied medical science students used more analgesics, antibiotics, antispasmodics, topical creams, and nutritional supplements.

Health science students are more prone to SM with analgesics; they may be at risk of analgesic overuse (21). The present study revealed antispasmodics followed by analgesics and antipyretics were the most frequently used drugs for SM by participants to treat minor illnesses such as fever and headaches. Surveys carried out in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Iran also revealed similar findings pertaining to the consumption of analgesics and antipyretics (2, 8, 11, 14, 20, 24, 25). As compared to studies conducted in Croatia 38% and Saudi Arabia 30%, the findings of the present study show significantly higher consumption of antibiotics as SM (68.8%) (3, 6, 18).

Data from the present study (analgesics and antipyretics 84.4%; antibiotics 68.8%) were higher than Okyay and Erdogan's study in Turkey, which observed that analgesics and antibiotics were the most commonly consumed medicines by students without a prescription, accounting for 39.5 and 36.9%, respectively (19).

There are different potential risks of SM such as incorrect self-diagnosis, administration, or dosing. According to the WHO in developing countries, the major cause of antibiotic resistance is the SM was an improper dose of antibiotics that might lead to various detrimental effects, including the sensitivity of antibiotics to microbial flora, development of multidrug resistance to pathogens, and other related symptoms (10, 11, 26–29). The SM of antibiotics needs to be stopped and strictly monitored by the regulatory authority (11, 29).

 4.5. Attitude and response toward adverse effects of drugs

Approximately 85.0% of the students in the present study indicated that they would seek medical advice from a physician (88.5%), followed by consultation with a pharmacist (56.7%, P < 0.0001) if they get the adverse effect of drugs. Klemenc-Ketis et al. and Alam et al. reported similar results when they reported that medical students consulted doctors and pharmacists about the adverse effects of drugs (6, 10, 15, 21). The students practice SM at first, but if it does not work, they usually prefer to go for medical consultation (21). In accordance with other studies, the attitude toward SM was positive, meaning students thought that it was not good to self-medicate (2, 11, 13). Reasons not to go for SM were risks of adverse effects, using the wrong medication, drug interaction, misdiagnosis, and drug abuse and dependence (10, 30). The adverse effects of such practices needed to be emphasized in the community and steps to constrain it. The rampant irrational use of antimicrobials, without medical consultation, may result in a high probability of missed diagnosis or delays in appropriate treatment, and increased morbidity (9, 31).

 4.6. Limitation of the study

The research has some limitations of its own. Because it was only conducted among female students, the study did not compare the two genders. The survey being a self-reported survey could have led to insufficient or excessive reporting of self-medication practices. Some students did not show interest in the study despite efforts to encourage them, possibly, which may have an impact on the sample size. Finally, the focus of the questionnaire was mainly on allopathic medications. The questionnaire did not include any conventional medications.

 5. Conclusion

In this study, it was observed that the most common reason for self-medication was to get quick relief from the disease and the students thought it would be a waste of time to visit the doctor and took the illness non-serious. The most common drugs used were antispasmodics followed by analgesics and antipyretics.

In this study, it was observed that the most common reason for self-medication was to get quick relief from the disease and the students thought it would be waste of time to visit the doctor and took the illness non-serious. The most common drugs used were antispasmodic followed by analgesic and antipyretics. The most common indications for SM reported were menstrual problems, fever, and headache. The family members were the main sources to motivate SM followed by self-acquired knowledge. When getting adverse effects most of them consulted doctors. It would be suggested that regulations and monitoring of drug dispensing should be strengthened by the legislative authorities.

 6. Recommendations

We recommend developing a healthcare system to incorporate the dispensing and sale of medicines more efficiently. Provide health information and create awareness of SM, their benefits and adverse effects, and their impact on health in the long run among the young generation. Social media such as television or public platforms can be used to create awareness in the community. Finally, the government must enforce strict rules and regulations mandating pharmacists to only dispense prescription medications.

 Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

 Ethics statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Institutional Review Board of Majmaah University (MUREC-Dec.15/COM-2020/13-1). Majmaah University, Saudi Arabia. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

 Author contributions

Conceptualization: SL and RE. Methodology: SL and HA. Validation and supervision: SL. Formal analysis and data curation: MK and SL. Data collection: MAlh. Writing—original draft preparation: SL, RK, and ZA-E. Writing—review and editing: SL, MAlz, HA, and RE. Visualization: MK. Project administration: RE. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

The authors would like to thank Majmaah University's Institutional Review Board for approving the proposal, the participants, and Majmaah University's College of Medicine and Applied Medical College for their cooperation during data collection. The authors would like to thank Dr. Ehsan Mohammad Abdelgadir, English Department, Deanship of Common First year at Majmaah University for her support in language correction. Finally the authors would like convey sincere gratitude to Head of Basic Science Department Dr. Ahmed Almutari and Dr. Elsadiq, for their support and encouragement.

 Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

 Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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