Nature has hosted some of the most devastating disasters in human history, and earthquakes rank among the most destructive natural events, caused by tectonic plate movements within the Earth’s crust (He et al., 2025; Edemen et al., 2023). Earthquakes, which occur frequently in many parts of the world, have become inevitable in certain regions. Throughout history, large-scale earthquakes have resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, injuries to millions, and extensive destruction (Zhang et al., 2014). Thus, earthquakes are not limited to causing physical damage; they also profoundly affect social structures.

The consequences of earthquakes extend beyond their immediate impact, as they can also trigger secondary natural events. Major earthquakes can disrupt ecosystems by causing sudden landform changes, vegetation loss, and landslides (Fan et al., 2021; Huang and Li, 2014). Moreover, earthquakes occur multiple times a year and can directly or indirectly affect the lives of millions of people (Dong and Shan, 2013; Vuran et al., 2025; Pang et al., 2025). This situation, which affects all segments of society, transforms individuals’ life experiences on both physical and psychological levels (Bozkurt et al., 2023). The destruction caused by fault line movements not only harms living and non-living entities but also leads to psychological responses such as intense anxiety, fear, and Traumatic Stress Disorder (Akça Taşçı and Özsoy, 2021). In this respect, earthquakes seriously threaten mental health and social cohesion in Türkiye (Açık Yavuz et al., 2025). In this context, it is considered a global natural event threatening human and environmental security.

Due to its location within the Mediterranean Alpine Himalayan seismic belt, Türkiye experiences approximately 20% of the world’s earthquakes and encounters at least one magnitude between 5.0 and 6.0 each year (AFAD, 2018). This geological reality leads to structural destruction and large-scale socioeconomic impacts (AFAD, 2023).

Throughout history, Türkiye has witnessed many devastating earthquakes. The 17 August 1999 Marmara Earthquake, with a magnitude of 7.4, resulted in tens of thousands of deaths, damage to hundreds of thousands of buildings, and left permanent marks on the socio-economic structure of the Marmara Region (Utkucu et al., 2011; Südaş, 2004). Subsequently, the 23 October 2011 Van Earthquake, with a magnitude of 7.2, caused severe destruction in Van and Erciş; hundreds lost their lives, and thousands of buildings became unusable (Deniz et al., 2017). More recently, the 30 October 2020 İzmir Earthquake, with a magnitude of 6.9, caused significant structural damage, particularly in the Bayraklı and Bornova districts, resulting in 117 deaths and more than 1,000 injuries (Eyler et al., 2022).

In particular, the earthquakes that occurred on February 6, 2023, were recorded as among the most devastating disasters in Türkiye’s history. Two major earthquakes, with moment magnitudes (Mw) of 7.7 and 7.6, struck 11 provinces, rupturing a fault line approximately 350 km long and affecting a total area of 110,000 km² (Hussain et al., 2023; AFAD, 2023; World Health Organization [WHO], 2023). As a result of the disaster, 14 million people were directly affected; approximately 50,000 people lost their lives; 107,000 were injured; 298,000 buildings were severely damaged; and 220,000 businesses were forced to close. Additionally, 3.3 million people were displaced (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2023).

Earthquakes not only lead to physical and economic losses but also lay the groundwork for long-term psychological effects and mental trauma among survivors (Zhou et al., 2019; Bulut, 2023; Karbeyaz, 2023). Post-earthquake stress reactions often include somatization, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, depression, anxiety disorders, and various other psychopathological manifestations (Adhikari Baral and K.C, 2019; Kawahara et al., 2020). Suicidal ideation resulting from traumatic experiences further highlights the severe impact of disasters on mental health.

The uncertainty and losses caused by earthquakes can impair individuals’ long-term functioning. Initial reactions such as anxiety, fear, and distractibility may evolve into persistent mental health issues over time (Öztekin and Örki, 2023; Çınaroğlu et al., 2025). A heavy trauma burden can negatively affect memory, emotional regulation, and coping mechanisms, potentially resulting in more severe psychiatric disorders (Demirchyan, 2022; Anis et al., 2023; Balbay et al., 2024; Çağış et al., 2023; Yıldırım, 2023; Aykut and Soner Aykut, 2020; Sultanoğlu et al., 2025; Bölükbaşı, 2025).

Recent studies conducted in Türkiye also support these findings. For example, it was determined that the prevalence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among individuals affected by the 6 February 2023 earthquakes was 55.2%, with a higher risk found among women, those who lost first-degree relatives, and individuals with sleep disturbances (Aslan and Önal, 2024). Similarly, depression and anxiety levels in adults affected by the earthquake were found to be significantly associated with PTSD symptoms (Filazoğlu et al., 2025). In a study conducted with university students, a positive relationship was reported between trauma level and sleep quality, with female students being particularly negatively affected (Aylaz et al., 2025). Moreover, many studies have emphasized the protective role of psychological resilience and social support on mental health after Trauma (Kizilhan et al., 2024; Canlı and Yılmaz, 2024; Açık Yavuz et al., 2025).

Beyond these clinical and field-based findings, it is also necessary to focus on the theoretical dimension of traumatic processes. Modern psychotraumatology and the theory of dissoanalysis provide an important framework for explaining the effects of trauma at both individual and societal levels. Indeed, it has been emphasized that mass traumas such as earthquakes can particularly predispose children to dissociative disorders and PTSD, making structured mental health interventions critically important (Öztürk et al., 2023a). The study by Öztürk and Derin (2023) reveals that dissociative disorders leave traces not only at the individual but also at the societal level, showing that trauma undermines psychosocial integrity through intergenerational transmission. Similarly, Öztürk et al. (2023b) highlight that traumatic events disrupt identity, memory, and self-construction. In contrast, Derin and Öztürk (2023) indicate that societal trauma agents such as war and terrorism lead to cycles of collective trauma through mass oppression, dysfunctional parenting styles, and impaired family structures. These theoretical approaches provide a strong foundation for understanding the multilayered nature of psychosocial effects following disasters and for evaluating protective factors such as coping humor, life engagement, and psychological resilience. Individuals’ coping with such psychological impacts depends on effectively utilizing their internal resources. At this point, psychological resilience is an important protective factor in post-traumatic recovery.

Psychological resilience is an individual’s capacity to cope with challenges, recover from traumatic experiences, and even emerge stronger from these processes (Rutter, 2007; Marici, 2015). This concept encompasses not only overcoming adversities but also the ability to adapt to demanding experiences and demonstrate recovery.

Various researchers describe psychological resilience as an individual’s ability to recover, return to previous levels of functioning, and adapt following traumatic events (Masten and Coatsworth, 1998; Earvolino-Ramirez, 2007; Basım and Çetin, 2011). This process addresses existing adversities and contributes to maintaining healthy functioning. Indeed, psychological resilience refers to activating protective factors in the face of developmental or social risks, enabling individuals to develop positive adaptive behaviors (Winders, 2014; Güloğlu and Karaırmak, 2010).

Masten (2014) considers psychological resilience as an individual’s ability to adapt adequately to challenges throughout the developmental process. In contrast, Üzar Özçetin and Hiçdurmaz (2017) and Korkut-Owen et al. (2017) view it as the capacity to recover quickly and return to everyday life after demanding life events. Psychological resilience is not merely an immediate response but a dynamic process that continues throughout life, strengthening with new experiences (Aydoğan and Eryiğit Madzwamuse, 2020).

Similarly, Fraser et al. (1999) define psychological resilience as the ability to adapt to unexpected situations and remain positive. Earvolino-Ramirez (2007) emphasizes the individual’s capacity to recover after adversities such as illness or depressive feelings. Block and Kremen (1996) also describe psychological resilience as the adaptive and coping abilities exhibited in response to negative experiences. In this context, the emergence of psychological resilience is often triggered by traumatic experiences such as the loss of a loved one, serious illnesses, divorce, poverty, or natural disasters (Karaırmak and Siviş Çetinkaya, 2011; Güloğlu and Karaırmak, 2010).

In conclusion, psychological resilience enables individuals to activate their protective factors and adapt, recover, and continue positive development despite encountering risky and traumatic situations. This process involves overcoming challenges, reinterpreting life, and maintaining and enhancing future-oriented goals. Therefore, psychological resilience is fundamental in strengthening individuals’ connection to life and making their existence more meaningful after traumatic experiences. In this regard, it is closely associated with life engagement, which explains individuals’ sense of life satisfaction and active participation in life.

Life engagement is an individual’s ability to attribute meaning and purpose to life, which enables resilience in the face of adversity (Uğur and Akın, 2015). Maintaining a sense of existential purpose helps mitigate the psychological collapse that might otherwise result from damage and trauma (Tazegül, 2018). In the context of developmental crises, setting realistic future goals and aligning them with personal values enhances motivation and offers protection against psychological distress (McKnight and Kashdan, 2009; Eryılmaz, 2012).

Life engagement is key to emotional recovery by fostering the search for meaning following traumatic experiences (Eryılmaz, 2012). Indeed, recent studies conducted in Türkiye after earthquakes also support this process. It was found that among individuals affected by the 6 February 2023 earthquakes, as levels of meaning in life and hope increased, symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) decreased, and the feeling of hope played a partial mediating role in the relationship between PTSD and meaning in life (Açık Yavuz et al., 2025). Similarly, the study by Canlı and Yılmaz (2024) revealed that the relationship between earthquake anxiety, death anxiety, and psychological resilience demonstrated the role of Life Engagement in strengthening mental health. Moreover, in the study of Karakış and Karaaziz (2024), earthquake anxiety, depression, stress, and anxiety were found to be negatively associated with psychological flexibility. It was emphasized that individuals with high psychological flexibility were less adversely affected by traumatic events and managed their mental recovery processes more effectively. Thus, incorporating life engagement into post-disaster psychosocial support programs is a crucial intervention strategy that strengthens mental health and increases resilience to future stressors. In this context, an important factor supporting life engagement is humor, which serves as a coping strategy that enhances emotional resilience.

In the face of traumatic experiences, individuals develop various defense mechanisms to maintain internal balance and strengthen their psychological resources. Among these, humor stands out as a powerful strategy that helps reframe stressful situations, reduce negative emotional burdens, and positively influence the perception of traumatic events (Öz and Hiçdurmaz, 2010; Deniz and Satıcı, 2017). Imagining humorous scenarios or creating jokes enables individuals to establish psychological distance from the distressing experience (Yerlikaya, 2009).

Humor enhances cognitive and emotional flexibility by helping individuals adopt more adaptive perspectives. Humorous elements that evoke positive emotions facilitate coping with stress and foster a positive emotional reservoir, contributing to long-term psychological resilience (Shoji et al., 2021; Kuiper and McHale, 2020). Therefore, the importance of Coping Humor increases in the context of mass traumas such as earthquakes. Although studies in this field are limited, existing findings shed light on the potential of humor to reduce post-earthquake stress, strengthen social bonds, and support recovery. Moreover, Coping Humor is an effective psychosocial strategy for alleviating trauma’s adverse effects and enhancing individuals’ resilience in the face of challenging life conditions.

This aspect of Coping Humor, which enhances individual resilience, becomes particularly significant in educational settings. In post-trauma processes, teachers are not merely transmitters of knowledge but also supportive figures contributing to students’ psychosocial recovery. Although important responsibilities fall upon all stakeholders in education (Basnet, 2020; Gezer and Şahin, 2022), physical education teachers, in particular, play a vital role in fostering both motor and emotional skills of students through the trust-based close relationships they establish in physical learning environments (Yucekaya et al., 2023). Movement-based methods reinforce the reflex to respond appropriately during sudden shaking, while group activities strengthen student solidarity and team spirit. Therefore, the expertise of physical education teachers serves as a critical bridge, not only in practical disaster drills but also in supporting students’ stress management and psychological recovery.

This study takes a holistic approach to the post-disaster psychological recovery processes of physical education and sport teachers. It examines the interactions among psychological resilience, life engagement, and coping humor factors, which have been largely overlooked in the literature, within the framework of a serial mediation model.

The existing literature has highlighted the decisive role of psychological resilience in individuals’ ability to cope with traumatic processes (Masten, 2014; Rutter, 2007; Üzar Özçetin and Hiçdurmaz, 2017; Yazıcı Çelebi, 2020; Vangölü and Tanhan, 2025; Helvacı Özkara and Yılmaz, 2025). Psychological resilience is defined as an individual’s capacity to adapt to challenging life experiences and emerge stronger from them, while the stress- and anxiety-reducing effects of humor have also been demonstrated in various studies (Shoji et al., 2021; Kuiper and McHale, 2020; Saul, 2022). Similarly, the psychological and physiological repercussions of traumatic experiences have been examined in detail in numerous studies (Aykut and Soner Aykut, 2020; Kino et al., 2020; Demirchyan, 2022; Tahernejad et al., 2023; Çağış et al., 2023; Anis et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2019; Akış and Korkmaz Yaylagül, 2021; Mayer, 2009; Çifçi and Kılınç, 2024; Balbay et al., 2024). However, a notable point is that most of these studies have approached the variables independently. Existing research on teachers has generally examined psychological resilience but has predominantly used univariate, limited approaches. Therefore, a model systematically testing the sequential mediating role of life engagement and coping humor in the relationship between resilience and post-traumatic stress does not exist in the literature. This theoretical gap constitutes the most critical void the present study aims to fill.

Furthermore, examining post-trauma recovery solely at the individual level has led to the neglect of teachers’ professional resilience, their interactions with students, and the psychosocial climate within educational settings. The selection of physical education and sport teachers, particularly in the post-disaster educational context, is based on their critical role in developing students’ physical skills and supporting their psychosocial resilience (Mutch, 2015). Integrating humor into pedagogical processes and trust-based student relationships positions these teachers in a privileged role during the post-trauma recovery process.

In conclusion, this study provides original contributions to the literature at theoretical and practical levels. Theoretically, examining psychological resilience, life engagement, and coping humor within a serial mediation model offers a multidimensional and mechanistic perspective on post-trauma recovery processes. The findings are expected to inform the restructuring of in-service training programs, the development of school-based resilience strategies, and efforts to enhance the visibility of psychological preparedness within disaster management frameworks for teachers. In this regard, the present study introduces an innovative approach that holistically addresses how teachers reconstruct their psychological resilience after disasters, maintain their connection to life, and use humor as a functional coping strategy.

The present study is grounded in resilience theory and a theoretical process perspective, which posits that psychological constructs influence outcomes not in isolation but through interrelated and sequential pathways (Fritz and MacKinnon, 2007; Hayes, 2013). Within this framework, mediation analysis provides a methodological approach to examining how the association between an independent variable and an outcome variable is transmitted through one or more intervening variables (Baron and Kenny, 1986; Hayes, 2018, 2022). While simple mediation models focus on a single intervening mechanism, serial mediation extends this approach by allowing the examination of theoretically ordered processes in which multiple mediators operate sequentially (Preacher and Hayes, 2008). This approach offers a more nuanced understanding of the pathways through which resilience-related resources are linked to post-trauma outcomes.

In the present study, psychological resilience is conceptualized as a foundational personal resource that initiates this relational sequence. Consistent with prior literature, higher levels of resilience are expected to be associated with greater life engagement, reflecting purposeful living, commitment to meaningful goals, and active involvement in life domains (Scheier et al., 2006). Individuals with higher life engagement are, in turn, more likely to employ adaptive coping strategies when confronted with adversity, particularly coping humor, which facilitates cognitive reappraisal and emotional regulation under stress (Martin, 1996; Yerlikaya, 2009). Coping humor has been shown to function as a psychological buffer, mitigating the negative psychological impact of traumatic experiences, including those arising from large-scale natural disasters such as earthquakes (Feder and Zulli, 2024).

Accordingly, the hypothesized serial mediation model proposes that psychological resilience is indirectly associated with lower levels of post-earthquake trauma through two sequential mediators: first, greater life engagement, and second, increased use of coping humor. This stepwise pathway is consistent with contemporary psychological frameworks that emphasize meaning-making processes and adaptive emotion regulation as central mechanisms underlying resilience and trauma adaptation (Kashdan and Rottenberg, 2010; Hu and Bentler, 1999). By specifying mediators in a theoretically meaningful order, the model allows for the examination of indirect associations that emerge sequentially rather than independently, thereby clarifying complex relational patterns among psychological variables (Sobel, 1982).

By testing this theoretically ordered mediation model, the present study advances beyond simple bivariate association analyses and contributes to a process-oriented understanding of how resilience facilitates psychological adjustment following disaster exposure. In line with a theoretical process perspective, the findings are intended to illuminate interrelated pathways linking personal resources, adaptive coping processes, and trauma-related outcomes rather than to suggest isolated or static protective effects (Fritz and MacKinnon, 2007; Hayes, 2013).

Based on the theoretical framework and empirical evidence, the following hypotheses were developed:

This study employed a relational screening model to examine the relationship between variables. Relational screening aims to identify the extent to which two or more variables change in relation to each other and assess whether a significant connection exists based on this change. This non-experimental approach provides insights into the direction and strength of the relationship between variables, enabling potential predictions (Karasar, 2016; Christensen et al., 2010).

To determine the appropriate sample size for the current study, a Monte Carlo simulation approach was employed, which is considered robust for complex models such as serial multiple mediation (Muthén and Muthén, 2002; Fritz and MacKinnon, 2007). Unlike traditional power analyses, Monte Carlo simulations allow researchers to estimate statistical power by generating data based on specified model parameters and repeatedly testing the model under these conditions. This approach is beneficial for mediation models with multiple mediators in sequence, where analytical solutions for power can be complicated or unavailable (Preacher and Kelley, 2011).

The serial mediation model in this study examined the theoretically informed indirect associations between psychological resilience (X) and post-earthquake trauma (Y) through life engagement (M1) and coping humor (M2). The analytical procedure included the following steps:

The present study included a total sample of N = 689, exceeding the minimum required sample size and indicating a high level of statistical sensitivity (> 0.95) for examining the proposed indirect associations. This sample size is consistent with recommendations for stable parameter estimation in mediation models and is associated with a lower risk of Type II error (Preacher and Hayes, 2008). The simulation results are presented in Figure 1.

The universe refers to all individuals targeted in the study and considered in the sample selection (Şimşek, 2015). Accordingly, the universe of this study consists of physical education teachers who experienced the earthquake that occurred on February 6, 2023, and who are currently working in one of the 11 provinces affected by the disaster (Kahramanmaraş, Gaziantep, Hatay, Adana, Adıyaman, Elazığ, Diyarbakır, Kilis, Malatya, Osmaniye, and Şanlıurfa).

A convenience sampling method was preferred when selecting the sample. This non-probability sampling technique includes individuals who are easily accessible to the researcher (Altunışık et al., 2012).

The inclusion criteria for participation in the study were as follows:

In addition, participants outside the 11 provinces specified in the study, who completed the form incompletely or inconsistently, and who were not physical education teachers, were excluded from the sample. Participants who met these criteria and were accessible were included in the sample.

The scales prepared via Google Forms were distributed online through the Provincial Directorates of National Education in the relevant provinces during the data collection. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary. As a result, 689 physical education and sports teachers participated in the study, exceeding the targeted sample size.

The reason for choosing physical education teachers as the sample is that, after disasters, they help develop physical skills and play an important role in supporting students’ psychosocial resilience (Mutch, 2015). Their trust-based relationships with students and ability to integrate humor into pedagogical approaches place physical education teachers in a critical position within post-trauma recovery processes. Therefore, in the present study, physical education teachers were considered an appropriate sample for evaluating the serial mediating role of life engagement and coping humor in the relationship between resilience and trauma.

This study aims to examine the association between psychological resilience and post-earthquake trauma among physical education and sport teachers, and to explore the theoretically informed serial mediation role of life engagement and coping humor in this association.

Serial multiple mediation models are analytical frameworks used to examine indirect associations among variables through multiple mediators arranged in a theoretically specified sequence. Rather than implying causality, such models allow researchers to assess whether the associations between a predictor and an outcome may be conceptually sequentially linked through intermediary variables (Hayes, 2018; Hayes, 2022).

Accordingly, the serial multiple mediation model examined the indirect associations of psychological resilience (X) with post-earthquake trauma (Y) through life engagement (M1) and coping humor (M2). Figure 2 presents the association between psychological resilience and post-earthquake trauma, while Figure 3 illustrates a theoretically informed serial mediation model that includes life engagement and coping humor.

Data was analyzed using SPSS v22. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, one of the tests used to assess the normality of data distributions (Berger and Zhou, 2014), was employed. The normality results of the scores obtained in this study are presented in Table 4.

The VIF values of the independent variables ranged from 1.024 to 1.119, and no multicollinearity was observed. The distribution of standardized residuals was normal and homogeneous. Cook’s Distance values ranged from 0.000 to 0.038, indicating that outliers did not significantly affect the regression results.

Regression Model Summary and ANOVA were conducted to examine the regression model’s explanatory power. The associations between the independent variables and the dependent variable were examined using regression coefficient tables.

When Table 4 is examined, the skewness and kurtosis values of the data fall within ± 1.5. Values within ± 2 (George and Mallery, 2010) indicate the absence of excessive deviations from normality. Consequently, the data were normally distributed and suitable for parametric tests. Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the relationships among the study variables, and the Fisher Z transformation test was applied to compare these relationships. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the associations among psychological resilience, life engagement, coping humor, and post-earthquake trauma. To examine the serial mediation associations among psychological resilience, life engagement, and coping humor, regression analyses based on the indirect-effect approach using the bootstrap method were conducted with the PROCESS v3.5 macro. The PROCESS Macro Model 6, developed by Hayes (2013), was used to test the theoretically specified serial mediation model, with 5,000 bootstrap resamples applied. The statistical significance of the indirect associations was evaluated using 95% confidence intervals from the bootstrap analysis; intervals that did not include zero indicated statistically significant indirect associations (Gürbüz, 2019; Hayes, 2013).

Although life engagement functioned as a protective factor in the present model, future studies employing moderation or non-linear analytical approaches may investigate whether different forms or intensities of life engagement produce differential psychological outcomes under prolonged traumatic exposure (Park, 2010).

Future studies could include different occupational groups, students, or family members to enhance the generalizability of the findings.

Instead of cross-sectional designs, longitudinal studies should be conducted to examine how psychological resilience, life engagement, and humor affect trauma over time.

Beyond self-report scales, incorporating observations, in-depth interviews, or biological/psychophysiological measures could provide more objective data.

Conducting similar studies across different cultures may reveal whether the protective role of psychosocial resources is universal or varies according to cultural contexts.

Considering that life engagement may not always serve as a protective factor, future research should further investigate under which conditions it may act as a risk-enhancing factor.