The present study is grounded in an integrative theoretical framework drawing upon Self-Regulation Theory, Stress Inoculation Theory, and mindfulness-based models of attentional regulation. These complementary perspectives collectively explain how repeated engagement in cognitively demanding, emotionally challenging, and physiologically arousing contexts may strengthen regulatory capacity across psychological and autonomic domains. Martial arts training represents a multimodal behavioral context in which these regulatory systems are repeatedly engaged. First, structured motor sequencing and reaction-based drills require sustained attention and executive inhibition, aligning with neurocognitive models of top-down attentional control. Second, controlled sparring and performance-based challenges introduce graded stress exposure consistent with Stress Inoculation Theory, facilitating adaptive stress appraisal and physiological regulation. Third, breath regulation and mindful movement practices embedded in martial arts parallel mechanisms identified in mindfulness-based interventions, promoting interoceptive awareness and parasympathetic modulation. Accordingly, we conceptualize martial arts training as a structured self-regulation training environment in which cognitive control, emotional modulation, and stress adaptation mechanisms are simultaneously activated. This integrative framework guided the selection of primary outcomes (emotion regulation, attentional control, perceived stress) and secondary neurophysiological markers (electrodermal activity, executive inhibition).

The present study addressed these gaps through a randomized controlled trial comparing martial arts self-regulation training with conventional physical exercise and a passive control group. We employed a multimethod assessment approach incorporating validated psychometric instruments and objective measures of attentional performance, cognitive flexibility, and autonomic stress reactivity. Based on the theoretical framework and existing evidence, we hypothesized that martial arts training would produce superior improvements in emotion regulation, attentional control, and stress resilience compared to both conventional exercise and control conditions, reflecting the unique cognitive-emotional demands of martial arts practice.

A total of 66 healthy university-aged young adults (18–25 years), consistent with developmental definitions of emerging adulthood. National-level status was defined as athletes who had represented their state in officially recognized national championships within the past 3 years. Eligibility criteria included: (a) no prior formal training in martial arts, (b) absence of diagnosed psychological, neurological, or cardiovascular disorders, (c) no engagement in structured mindfulness or meditation practices during the previous 6 months, and (d) willingness to provide written informed consent. Participants with musculoskeletal injuries or medical conditions contraindicating physical activity were excluded. An a priori sample size estimation was performed using G*Power (version 3.1.9.7) based on a mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) with three groups and two repeated measurements. The following parameters were applied: a medium effect size (f = 0.25), an alpha level of 0.05, statistical power of 0.80, three groups, two measurement occasions, an assumed correlation among repeated measures of 0.50, and a non-sphericity correction of ε = 1. The analysis indicated a minimum required total sample size of 66 participants (22 per group). To account for potential attrition and incomplete data, the recruitment target was increased by approximately 15–20%, resulting in an anticipated sample size of 75–80 participants (see Tables 1–5).

The present study employed a randomized controlled experimental design with three parallel groups and repeated measurements conducted before and after the intervention period. The experimental framework followed a 3 (Group: Martial Arts Training, Conventional Physical Exercise, Control) × 2 (Time: Pre-intervention, post-intervention) mixed factorial design. Participants were recruited using a purposive sampling technique, ensuring that all individuals met the predefined inclusion criteria relevant to psychological self-regulation research. Following baseline assessment, participants were randomly assigned to one of the three study groups using a computer-generated randomization sequence to minimize allocation bias and enhance internal validity.

All outcome variables were assessed 1 week before (pre-test) and 1 week after (post-test) the intervention period by trained assessors blinded to group allocation. To ensure conceptual clarity and minimize outcome multiplicity, study variables were categorized as primary and secondary outcomes based on their direct relevance to the study aims and title. A combination of validated psychometric instruments and objective neurophysiological measures was employed.

The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology, China (Approval No.: IEC/GUPT/SPE718). All procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Prior to participation, all participants received detailed information regarding the study objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits, and provided written informed consent. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty or consequences. Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured through the use of coded identifiers, and all data were securely stored and accessed only by the research team.

Data were analyzed using SPSS (version 23). Descriptive statistics (mean ± standard deviation) were calculated for all variables. The normality of data distribution was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test. To control for Type, I error arising from multiple outcome measures, a hierarchical analysis strategy was adopted. Primary outcome variables were analyzed first, followed by secondary outcomes only if significant group × time interactions were observed in the primary analyses. For primary outcomes, a mixed-model repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted with group (martial arts training, conventional exercise, control) as the between-subjects factor and time (pre, post) as the within-subjects factor. Where baseline differences were present, ANCOVA was performed with baseline values entered as covariates. For secondary outcomes, the same analytical approach was applied; however, Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc comparisons were used to further control the family-wise error rate. Effect sizes were reported using partial eta squared (η² _p ) for ANOVA effects and Cohen’s d for pairwise comparisons. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 for primary outcomes. For secondary outcomes, adjusted significance thresholds were applied where appropriate. This analytical approach ensured a balance between statistical rigor and interpretability while minimizing the risk of false-positive findings. EDA was included as an objective indicator of sympathetic stress reactivity to complement self-reported stress measures. The Stroop task was used to assess executive inhibitory control, a core mechanism underlying psychological self-regulation.

The present study examined the effects of martial arts self-regulation training on emotion regulation, attentional control, and stress resilience in healthy young adults. The term “young adults” in this study refers specifically to university-aged individuals between 18 and 25 years, and findings should be interpreted within this developmental context. The findings demonstrate that an 8-week structured martial arts intervention produced significantly greater improvements in psychological self-regulation compared to conventional physical exercise and passive control conditions. Participants in the MA-SRT group exhibited enhanced emotion regulation, faster attentional processing, reduced perceived stress, increased psychological resilience, decreased sympathetic arousal, and improved executive inhibitory control. These results provide empirical support for the role of martial arts training as an effective psychological self-regulation intervention.

The most robust finding of this study was the substantial improvement in emotion regulation among participants who completed the martial arts training program. The MA-SRT group demonstrated a mean increase of 0.92 points on the ERQ, significantly outperforming both the conventional exercise group (Δ = +0.36) and the control group (Δ = +0.11), with a large effect size (η² _p  = 0.49). This finding aligns with previous research indicating that martial arts training enhances emotional regulation capacities through repeated exposure to controlled stress and the cultivation of mindful awareness during movement (Origua Rios et al., 2018). Lakes and Hoyt (2004) similarly reported improvements in self-regulation among children following a Taekwondo intervention, suggesting that the integration of physical discipline with cognitive and emotional control may facilitate adaptive regulatory strategies across developmental periods (Lakes and Hoyt, 2004). The emphasis on breath control, focused attention, and deliberate movement sequencing inherent in martial arts practice appears to create a training environment conducive to the development of cognitive reappraisal strategies, which are central to effective emotion regulation (Gross, 2015).

Attentional control, as measured by reaction time on the Continuous Performance Task, showed the largest intervention effect observed in this study (η² _p  = 0.75). Participants in the MA-SRT group exhibited a mean reduction of 59.87 ms in reaction time, substantially exceeding the improvements observed in the CPEG (Δ = −30.03 ms) and control groups (Δ = −5.02 ms). These findings are consistent with research demonstrating that martial arts training enhances sustained attention and response inhibition (Lakes and Hoyt, 2004; Diamond and Ling, 2016; Goethel et al., 2023). The repetitive practice of kata or forms, which requires precise timing, sequencing, and sustained concentration, may strengthen neural networks associated with attentional control and executive function (Tang and Posner, 2009). Furthermore, the progressive introduction of controlled sparring and decision-making tasks under time pressure likely enhanced participants’ ability to maintain focus and rapidly process relevant stimuli, skills that are reflected in reduced reaction times.

Perceived stress, as assessed by the PSS-10, decreased significantly in the MA-SRT group (Δ = −6.09) compared to the CPEG (Δ = −2.93) and control groups (Δ = −0.47), with a large effect size (η² _p  = 0.63). This result is in accordance with prior studies showing that martial arts practice reduces perceived stress and anxiety (Woodward, 2009; Zivin et al., 2001). The structured nature of martial arts training, which combines physical exertion with mental discipline and breath regulation, may activate parasympathetic recovery mechanisms and promote psychological detachment from daily stressors (Bu et al., 2010). Additionally, the mastery experiences gained through progressive skill acquisition in martial arts may enhance self-efficacy and perceived control, both of which are protective factors against stress (Bandura, 1997). The integration of mindfulness-like components within martial arts training may further contribute to stress reduction by fostering present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance of internal experiences (Moore and Malinowski, 2009).

Psychological resilience, as measured by the CD-RISC-25, improved markedly in the MA-SRT group (Δ = +10.01) relative to the CPEG (Δ = +3.98) and control groups (Δ = +0.89), with a large effect size (η² _p  = 0.69). Resilience development in martial arts may be facilitated by exposure to controlled physical and psychological challenges, which provide opportunities for participants to practice tolerance of discomfort, regulate emotional responses under pressure, and develop confidence in their ability to overcome adversity (Connor and Davidson, 2003). The philosophical and ethical components often embedded in martial arts training, such as perseverance, respect, and humility, may also contribute to resilience by fostering a growth-oriented mindset and a sense of purpose (Fuller, 1988).

EDA, an objective marker of sympathetic nervous system activation, decreased significantly in the MA-SRT group (Δ = −1.13 μS) compared to the CPEG (Δ = −0.54 μS) and control groups (Δ = −0.12 μS), with a moderate-to-large effect size (η² _p  = 0.53). This physiological finding complements the self-reported stress data and suggests that martial arts training may modulate autonomic reactivity to stressors (Critchley, 2002). The integration of controlled breathing techniques and mindful movement in martial arts practice has been shown to enhance vagal tone and reduce sympathetic dominance, thereby promoting physiological relaxation and stress resilience (Ditto et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018). These neurophysiological adaptations may reflect improved regulatory capacity at both psychological and biological levels.

Executive inhibitory control, assessed via Stroop interference scores, improved substantially in the MA-SRT group (Δ = −35.04 ms) relative to the CPEG (Δ = −14.94 ms) and control groups (Δ = −2.97 ms), with a large effect size (η² _p  = 0.71). This result is consistent with evidence indicating that martial arts training enhances executive function and cognitive control (Chang et al., 2013; Gu et al., 2019). The Stroop task requires participants to inhibit prepotent responses and resolve cognitive conflict, processes that are central to self-regulation (MacLeod, 1991). The martial arts training protocol employed in this study emphasized rapid decision-making, attentional switching, and inhibitory control during sparring and reaction-based drills, which may have strengthened prefrontal cortical networks involved in executive function (Diamond, 2013). These findings suggest that martial arts training may serve as a potent intervention for enhancing top-down cognitive control mechanisms.

While the CPEG demonstrated moderate improvements across most outcome measures, the magnitude of change was consistently smaller than that observed in the MA-SRT group. This pattern of results suggests that the unique combination of physical, cognitive, and emotional components inherent in martial arts training confers additional psychological benefits beyond those associated with general aerobic and resistance exercise. Previous research has similarly found that martial arts interventions outperform conventional exercise in promoting self-regulation and executive function (Lakes and Hoyt, 2004; Vertonghen and Theeboom, 2010). The integration of mindfulness, controlled breathing, structured movement sequences, and progressive exposure to controlled stress in martial arts training may activate distinct psychological and neurobiological pathways that are not fully engaged by conventional exercise alone (Gothe and McAuley, 2015).

Nevertheless, the CPEG group did show statistically significant improvements compared to the control group across all primary and secondary outcomes, indicating that conventional physical exercise retains value as a psychological intervention. These findings are consistent with a substantial body of evidence demonstrating that regular physical activity enhances mood, reduces stress, and improves cognitive function (Erickson et al., 2011; Mandolesi et al., 2018). The cardiovascular and neurobiological adaptations associated with aerobic exercise, including increased hippocampal neurogenesis and elevated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels, may partially account for these benefits (Cotman et al., 2007).

The superior psychological outcomes observed in the MA-SRT group may be explained by several interrelated mechanisms. First, martial arts training integrates mindfulness and focused attention, which have been shown to enhance self-regulation and reduce stress reactivity (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Tang et al., 2015). The deliberate coordination of breath and movement in martial arts practice closely resembles mindfulness meditation, promoting present-moment awareness and nonjudgmental observation of internal states (Moore and Malinowski, 2009). Second, the progressive exposure to controlled physical and psychological challenges in martial arts training may function as a form of stress inoculation, enhancing participants’ ability to remain calm and focused under pressure (Meichenbaum, 1985). Third, the mastery experiences and skill progression inherent in martial arts practice may strengthen self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, both of which are associated with improved psychological well-being (Deci and Ryan, 2000; Zimmerman, 2000). Fourth, the structured and ritualized nature of martial arts training may provide a sense of order, discipline, and purpose, which can buffer against stress and promote psychological resilience (Vertonghen and Theeboom, 2010).

From a neurobiological perspective, martial arts training may enhance self-regulation by modulating activity in brain regions associated with executive function, emotion regulation, and interoceptive awareness, including the prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and insula (Tang et al., 2012; Craig, 2009). Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that mindfulness-based interventions and martial arts practice are associated with structural and functional changes in these regions (Hölzel et al., 2011; Raine et al., 2018). Additionally, the integration of aerobic exercise with cognitive training in martial arts may produce synergistic effects on neuroplasticity and cognitive function (Fabel et al., 2009).

Taken together, the present findings suggest that these theoretical mechanisms operate in a synergistic rather than independent manner within the context of martial arts training. The simultaneous improvements observed across executive inhibitory control, attentional performance, perceived stress, and autonomic regulation indicate coordinated engagement of cognitive and physiological regulatory systems. While neurocognitive models explain enhancements in top-down executive processes, Stress Inoculation Theory accounts for adaptive modulation of stress reactivity, and mindfulness-based perspectives elucidate the role of breath regulation and metacognitive awareness. Importantly, the convergence of these outcomes within a single intervention framework extends prior literature by empirically demonstrating that martial arts training may function as an integrated self-regulation training environment in which executive control, stress adaptation, and mindful attentional engagement interact to produce comprehensive psychological benefits. Thus, the theoretical contribution of the present study lies in highlighting the synergistic integration of these regulatory mechanisms rather than attributing the effects to a single explanatory model.

The findings of this study have several practical implications. First, martial arts training may be a viable and effective intervention for enhancing psychological self-regulation in young adults, with potential applications in educational, clinical, and community settings. Schools and universities could incorporate martial arts programs to promote students’ emotional and cognitive development, particularly in populations at risk for stress-related difficulties (Theeboom et al., 2009). Second, clinicians and mental health professionals may consider recommending martial arts training as a complementary approach to traditional psychotherapy for individuals seeking to improve emotion regulation, reduce stress, and build resilience (Castonguay et al., 2012). Third, organizations and workplaces may benefit from offering martial arts-based wellness programs to enhance employees’ stress management skills and overall well-being (Richardson and Rothstein, 2008).

Beyond higher education contexts, martial arts-based self-regulation programs may hold promise for other populations characterized by elevated stress or regulatory demands. For example, competitive athletes, high-performance professionals, and individuals working in high-pressure occupations may benefit from structured training that integrates attentional control, emotional regulation, and stress exposure. Additionally, individuals experiencing stress-related symptoms or subclinical emotional dysregulation may potentially benefit from such multimodal interventions. However, extrapolation beyond the present university-aged sample requires empirical validation. The psychological, physiological, and contextual characteristics of different populations may influence intervention effectiveness. Future randomized controlled trials should examine adaptation of martial arts-based self-regulation protocols for clinical populations, older adults, occupational groups, and sport-specific contexts to determine feasibility, safety, and effectiveness.

Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the sample consisted exclusively of healthy university-aged young adults (18–25 years), which limits generalizability to adolescents, older adults, clinical populations, or individuals with lower baseline psychological functioning. The relative homogeneity and developmental plasticity of this population may also have influenced the magnitude of observed effect sizes. Replication in more diverse and heterogeneous samples is necessary to determine the stability and generalizability of the findings. Second, although an active control group was employed, the study did not include a condition that matched the social interaction and instructional structure of martial arts training. Future research incorporating attention-control designs would further clarify specific versus nonspecific intervention effects. Third, the intervention duration was limited to 8 weeks. Longitudinal research with follow-up assessments is required to determine the durability of psychological and physiological adaptations. Finally, potential mediating mechanisms (e.g., changes in mindfulness, self-efficacy, or autonomic regulation patterns) were not directly tested. Future studies employing mediation analyses could clarify the pathways through which martial arts training enhances self-regulation (Duncan et al., 2010). Future studies should incorporate attention-control conditions to disentangle specific from nonspecific intervention effects. Fourth, the study did not assess potential mediating mechanisms, such as changes in mindfulness, self-efficacy, or autonomic nervous system regulation, which could provide deeper insights into how martial arts training enhances self-regulation. Finally, the study was conducted in a specific cultural context, and cultural factors may influence both the practice of martial arts and the interpretation of psychological constructs such as emotion regulation and resilience (Tsai et al., 2006).

Several avenues for future research emerge from this study. First, neuroimaging studies could elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying the psychological benefits of martial arts training by examining changes in brain structure and function associated with emotion regulation, attention, and executive control (Tang et al., 2012). Second, dose–response studies could investigate the optimal frequency, intensity, and duration of martial arts training needed to produce meaningful psychological improvements. Third, comparative effectiveness research could examine whether different styles of martial arts (e.g., karate, taekwondo, judo, aikido) produce differential effects on psychological outcomes. Fourth, mediation and moderation analyses could identify the psychological, behavioral, and physiological pathways through which martial arts training enhances self-regulation and determine which individuals are most likely to benefit from such interventions. Finally, implementation research could explore the feasibility, acceptability, and scalability of martial arts-based interventions in real-world settings, including schools, mental health clinics, and community centers.