In high-level sports context, it is recognized that optimal performance depends not only on athletes’ physical capabilities, but also on their mental abilities and psychophysiological conditions, such as wellbeing and stress (Wang et al., 2025; Schinke et al., 2018). Consequently, sport psychology is increasingly investigated in sport science, although the integration of psychological interventions into athletic training programs remains scarcely applied (Wang et al., 2025). A psychological technique that is attracting growing interest for its effectiveness—even within the sports field—is mindfulness. It is described as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment and non-judgmentally, to the unfolding of experience” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Existing literature indicates that mindfulness-based training can generate positive psychological effects, including improved wellbeing, better emotional and behavioral regulation, and reduced stress (Keng et al., 2011; Spinelli et al., 2019; Accoto et al., 2021). As a result, it is starting to be applied in the sports field, with the aim of promoting athletes’ health and performance (Gardner and Moore, 2017; Gledhill, 2021). Several sport-specific mindfulness protocols have been developed to adapt traditional techniques to athletes’ demands, such as Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS) (Baltzell et al., 2014) or Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) (Kaufman et al., 2009). Consistent with this trend, accumulating evidence indicates that mindfulness-based interventions in athletes are associated with beneficial psychological outcomes—such as enhanced sport-related mental skills—as well as measurable improvements in sport performance (Si et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2023; Sappington and Longshore, 2015; Josefsson et al., 2019; Bühlmayer et al., 2017). However, the underlying psychophysical mechanisms through which mindfulness influences athletic performance remain not yet fully understood.

Mindfulness has been conceptualized as a metacognitive practice involving higher cognitive abilities to observe and regulate ongoing mental processes, through intentional allocation of attentional resources (Jankowski and Holas, 2014; Dahl et al., 2015; Lutz et al., 2008; Kabat-Zinn, 2003). During practice, two main attentional techniques are typically adopted: focused attention (FA), directing attention to an object (e.g., breath, body sensations) and, when the mind inevitably wanders, redirecting attention; open monitoring (OM)—which is adopted in advanced stages—directing attention to the overall present experience while maintaining vigilant and non-reactive monitoring of the consciousness flow (Dahl et al., 2015; Lutz et al., 2008). FA has been linked to selective attention mediated by fronto-parietal networks, whereas OM to sustained attention mediated by the noradrenergic system, both coordinated by executive functions engaging the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Chiesa et al., 2011; Petersen and Posner, 2012). Accordingly, evidence indicates that mindfulness-based training leads to improvements in various attention-measuring tasks (Sumantry and Stewart, 2021; Verhaeghen, 2021; Chiesa et al., 2011)—particularly those targeting executive processes such as working memory and cognitive inhibition (Sumantry and Stewart, 2021; Verhaeghen, 2021; Cásedas et al., 2020)—and induces consistent brain changes in attentional networks (Tang et al., 2015).

Emerging evidence suggests that mindfulness could also have positive effects on physical health (Creswell et al., 2019; Grossman et al., 2004; Pascoe et al., 2017), although these findings are not yet comprehensive. The strongest evidence concerns cardiovascular health (Scott-Sheldon et al., 2020), chronic pain (Hilton et al., 2017), and inflammatory and immunological markers (Black and Slavich, 2016; Heckenberg et al., 2018; Pascoe et al., 2017; Rosenkranz et al., 2013; Higgins et al., 2022). The mechanisms underlying these changes primarily involve alterations in brain activity related to stress, emotions, and interoception, including increased connectivity in prefrontal, cingulate, and insular regions and reduced reactivity in limbic areas (Creswell et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2015). These neural changes can then affect the body through the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) (Creswell et al., 2019; Pascoe et al., 2017). In response to stress or anxious stimuli, the HPA axis release powerful molecules in the bloodstream—such as cortisol—and its chronic activation can lead to immune suppression, increased inflammation, and accelerated biological aging (Charmandari et al., 2005). In this regard, mindfulness has been shown to reduce cortisol secretion (Pascoe et al., 2017; Heckenberg et al., 2018). On the other hand, the ANS comprises fibers originating from the brainstem and spinal cord and regulates autonomic functions through two opposing subsystems: the sympathetic nervous system, which is activated in stressful or dangerous situations and increases heart and respiratory rates, as well as muscle response; and the parasympathetic nervous system, which is activated in conditions of rest and safety and decreases these processes (Gibbons, 2019). Notably, sympathetic hyperactivation and parasympathetic hypoactivation have been associated with prolonged stress conditions (Gibbons, 2019). Conversely, mindfulness has been shown to promote ANS balance, as reflected by better heart rate variability (HRV) (Tung and Hsieh, 2019; Heckenberg et al., 2018). HRV is a non-invasive method for observing the heart’s ability to adapt to impulses from the ANS (Sztajzel, 2004), representing a valid measure of ANS balance, stress adaptability, and mental and physical health (Kemp and Quintana, 2013).

As mentioned, ANS activity is also linked to both respiratory rate and muscle tone. For example, sympathetic hyperactivation—and the associated states of stress and anxiety—has been associated with rapid and irregular breathing rates (Jerath et al., 2015) and muscle tension (Pluess et al., 2009). Regarding the relationship between mindfulness and respiration—beyond the above-mentioned autonomic regulation that could benefit this process—the ability to maintain awareness of breathing is particularly emphasized in this practice, through techniques that include attention to breath sensations and respiratory muscle movements (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Jerath et al., 2015). In this regard, mindfulness has been linked with reductions of respiratory rate in healthy meditators (Karunarathne et al., 2024; Wielgosz et al., 2016), and with benefits for individuals with pulmonary disorders—both in terms of psychological outcomes (Arefnasab et al., 2013; Paudyal et al., 2018; Li et al., 2023) and airway inflammation biomarkers (Higgins et al., 2022). However, no other evidence has been found yet about effects on pulmonary function parameters (Karunarathne et al., 2024; Arefnasab et al., 2013; Paudyal et al., 2018). Similarly, although mindfulness has shown to reduces stress, anxiety and sympathetic hyperactivation (Keng et al., 2011; Tung and Hsieh, 2019; Heckenberg et al., 2018)—factors that can increase muscle tension (Pluess et al., 2009)—and although it is theoretically assumed to promote bodily relaxation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Luberto et al., 2020), evidence on its direct effects on muscle parameters remains minimal. In addition to studies reporting improvements following mindfulness in musculoskeletal disorder symptoms (Hilton et al., 2017; Cruze and Games, 2021), there is evidence reporting a decrease in the electrical activity of muscle fibers measured through electromyography (Crescentini et al., 2016).

In light of all these assumptions, and returning to the sports context, it is therefore conceivable that psychophysiological stress and the related autonomic balance could influence athletic performance. For example, the maladaptive muscle tension that occurs during chronic stress response can reduce range of motion, flexibility, and motor coordination (Williams and Andersen, 1998; Olmedilla-Zafra et al., 2017). These patterns could increase injury risk (Williams and Andersen, 1998; Olmedilla-Zafra et al., 2017; Witvrouw et al., 2003) and impair sports performance (Olmedilla-Zafra et al., 2017; Tossici et al., 2024; Skopal et al., 2024). The cardiovascular and pulmonary functions are also critical for performance—especially in endurance activities—by supplying adequate blood and oxygen to muscles, improving the ability to sustain prolonged exertion and recover quicker (Mazaheri et al., 2021). Pulmonary function further support peak oxygen uptake and ventilatory efficiency, as well as exercise capacity in most sports (McNeill et al., 2022). Moreover, attention to external stimuli and its executive components are influential in competitive sports performance, enabling athletes to ignore distractions, maintain focus on the main activity, and flexibly adapt to constantly changing game strategies (Brimmell et al., 2024; Moran, 2012). At the same time, attention to internal stimuli, also known as interoception, enables athletes to better motor coordination or to adequately manage training intensity based on physiological signals, such as those of fatigue, thus reducing the risk of over-exertion-related injuries (Li et al., 2021; Bruscolotti et al., 2020; Gledhill, 2021). Given the relevance of these variables for sport performance, it is important to better understand whether interventions such as mindfulness can promote adaptive changes in these domains within athletic populations. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to explore the effects of mindfulness-based training in athletes on several psychological and physiological variables, such as interoceptive awareness, cognitive inhibition, heart rate variability, pulmonary function, and muscle flexibility. We hypothesized that a study group who joined an 8-week mindfulness-based training would show significant improvements in these variables in these variables following the intervention compared to a control group.

Descriptive statistics for baseline data of mindfulness and control groups are shown in Table 1. Results from Welch Two Sample t-test showed no statistically significant differences between the two groups in continuous variables such as age, BMI, and sport time per week (Table 1). Results from Pearson’s Chi-squared test showed no statistically significant differences between the two groups in categorical variables such as Gender, Habitual smoker, Musculoskeletal disorders, Metabolic and/or autoinflammatory disorders, and Lung or respiratory disorders (Table 1). Descriptive statistics for the outcomes of mindfulness and control groups at T0 and T1 are shown in Table 2, together with the p-values for the time × group interaction from the linear mixed-effects models. All parameter estimates of linear mixed-effects models are reported in Supplementary Table S1.

The current study aimed to explore the effects of an 8-week mindfulness-based training in a group of athletes on several performance-relevant psychological and physiological measures, compared to a control group that did not participate in the training. The results revealed significant improvements on some of these variables in athletes, providing guidance about the potential benefits of mindfulness in the sports field.

Specifically, the results from MAIA showed a statistically significant improvement in the study group compared to the control group following treatment. This indicates that mindfulness-based training improved participants’ interoceptive awareness. The result is in line with literature indicating that a brief mindfulness training can promote the ability to consciously perceive and integrate signals from the body (Lima-Araujo et al., 2022), by cultivating present-moment focused attention to internal experience, such as breath and bodily sensations (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Lutz et al., 2008; Creswell et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2015). This observed enhancement could provide different potential benefits for athletes. First, it could lead to better motor control or coordination (Bruscolotti et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021). Indeed, athletes who are more attuned to their internal cues could be able to fine-tune their movements more effectively. This is particularly relevant in high-level sports, where precise motor execution is critical for performance optimization. Greater sensitivity to physiological cues such as muscle response, respiration and heart rate, or fatigue signals, could also allow athletes to adjust exercise intensity in real time based on these cues during both training and competition. In case of fatigue signals during or after exercise, being aware of early signs of exhaustion could enable proactive recovery strategies. This kind of self-regulation could help reduce the risk of over-exertion-related injuries (Bruscolotti et al., 2020; Gledhill, 2021). Overall, the result of the questionnaire confirms the extensive literature supporting mindfulness as a long-standing contemplative practice for expanding awareness and being more aware of self and internal dynamics (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). In relation to the cognitive dimension, the results from Stroop task showed no statistically significant improvement in the study group compared to the control group following treatment on Interference index. This finding is in contrast with the existing literature, as several studies have reported improvements following an 8-week mindfulness training in attentional (Sumantry and Stewart, 2021; Verhaeghen, 2021; Chiesa et al., 2011) and executive functions, particularly in cognitive inhibition (Sumantry and Stewart, 2021; Verhaeghen, 2021; Cásedas et al., 2020). These cognitive domains would be employed during the meditative practice and appear to improve following the practice, as also does the activity of the brain areas that mediate these processes (Tang et al., 2015). However, our study did not find improvements in a test measuring these domains, which remain relevant to athletic performance in many disciplines (Brimmell et al., 2024; Moran, 2012).

The results from HRV showed a statistically significant increase in the study group compared to the control group following treatment in the SDNN parameter. This finding is consistent with previous studies analyzing the effects of mindfulness on HRV with other populations (Tung and Hsieh, 2019; Heckenberg et al., 2018). In particular, the SDNN index reflects the balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems (Sztajzel, 2004). Thus, this improvement suggests that mindfulness-based training positively affects the athletes’ overall balance of the ANS, potentially contributing to improved stress adaptability, mental and physical health (Kemp and Quintana, 2013), and cardiovascular function (Xhyheri et al., 2012). These benefits are particularly valuable for athletes, as enhanced autonomic balance and stress regulation can directly impact both performance and recovery (Plews et al., 2013). A more balanced autonomic nervous system supports a quicker return to homeostasis following intense physical exertion, reducing recovery times, and lowering the risk of overtraining and injury (Plews et al., 2013). Moreover, cardiovascular function is crucial in most sports. For example, in sports requiring sustained aerobic effort or repeated high-intensity workouts—such as running, cycling, soccer, or basketball—optimal cardiovascular efficiency becomes a key determinant of endurance and overall physical performance. An efficient cardiovascular function ensures that working muscles receive an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients during exercise, while also facilitating the removal of metabolic by-products (Mazaheri et al., 2021; Joyner and Coyle, 2008). This can delay the onset of fatigue and improve recovery capacity between training sessions and competitive events. Improved HRV indices have also been associated with psychological wellbeing, positive emotionality, emotional regulation, and motivation (Kemp and Quintana, 2013), all crucial skills for athletes competing at high levels (Schinke et al., 2018). Therefore, the observed benefit could be translated into both physiological and psychological advantages for athletes, helping them sustain high levels of performance while maintaining psychophysical wellbeing. Regarding the RMSSD parameter—which primarily reflects parasympathetic activity (Sztajzel, 2004)—the results showed no statistically significant improvement in the study group compared to the control group following treatment on this parameter, in contrast with previous research (Barbry et al., 2025; Tung and Hsieh, 2019). This pattern may suggest that, at this early stage of practice and in a population of athletes—who should already be relatively healthy from a cardiovascular perspective—mindfulness primarily influences overall autonomic balance rather than producing a pronounced increase in parasympathetic tone. Additionally, the results showed a statistically significant effect of age on both SDNN and RMSSD parameters. This indicates that an increase in age corresponds to lower values of these indices, reflecting a gradual decline in overall autonomic flexibility. This pattern is in line with the previous literature (Shaffer and Ginsberg, 2017), as HRV tends to decrease across the lifespan due to age-related changes in cardiac autonomic regulation.

Concerning the pulmonary function, the results showed no improvement in the study group compared to the control group following treatment on FEV1, FVC, and FEV1/FVC parameters. Therefore, our results did not suggest short-term benefits on pulmonary function in athletes due to brief mindfulness training and its breathing techniques. Beyond the rapid and irregular breathing rates linked to sympathetic hyperactivation, anxiety and stress conditions (Jerath et al., 2015), the available evidence on this topic was limited and focused upon changes on respiratory rate in healthy meditators (Karunarathne et al., 2024), and on psychological outcomes and airway inflammation biomarkers in meditators with respiratory disorders (Arefnasab et al., 2013; Paudyal et al., 2018; Li et al., 2023). In these populations, no improvements following mindfulness have been reported so far on these pulmonary function parameters (Karunarathne et al., 2024; Arefnasab et al., 2013; Paudyal et al., 2018). Our result is in line with this previous research. Moreover, age showed a statistically significant effect on FEV1, FVC and FEV1/FVC parameters, suggesting that a an increase in age corresponds to lower values on these indices, while gender showed a statistically significant effect on FEV1 and FVC, suggesting that males exhibited higher values on these two indices. Both results are in accordance with previous research indicating that the spirometry values tend to progressively decrease with advancing age, and that males have higher FEV1 and FVC—but not FEV1/FVC—values than females due to largest height and chest size (Stanojevic et al., 2008).

Similarly, the results of Sit and reach test showed no improvement in the study group compared to the control group following treatment. Therefore, our results did not suggest short-term benefits on muscle flexibility in athletes due to brief mindfulness training and its relaxation techniques. On a theoretical level, mindfulness has been proposed to facilitate psychophysical relaxation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Luberto et al., 2020) and has demonstrated efficacy in reducing stress-related arousal (Tung and Hsieh, 2019; Heckenberg et al., 2018; Keng et al., 2011), which may in turn contribute to the reduction of dysfunctional muscle tension (Pluess et al., 2009). This may, over time, facilitate improvements in flexibility. Indeed, excessive and maladaptive muscle tension is known to limit joint range of motion, a process that negatively affects athletic performance and increases injury risk (Olmedilla-Zafra et al., 2017; Witvrouw et al., 2003; Williams and Andersen, 1998). However, so far, while some studies suggest positive effects of mindfulness-based interventions on musculoskeletal disorders symptoms (Hilton et al., 2017; Cruze and Games, 2021), and a decrease in the electrical activity of muscle fibers (Crescentini et al., 2016), no further data are available on muscle-related outcomes in healthy and athletic populations. Our finding adds to this limited body of evidence. Moreover, a statistically significant effect of gender was showed on the scores of this test, indicating that females exhibit a greater score than males. This is another result in line with the previous literature showing that females practicing different sports had higher values of muscle flexibility measured with this test than males (Aedo-Muñoz et al., 2019). Finally, it is worth noting that, although the analysis revealed descriptive improvements in some outcomes (e.g., FEV1/FVC and muscle flexibility) in the study group compared to the control group following the treatment, these changes were not statistically significant. This lack of significance may be partially attributed to the limited statistical power to detect smaller effects. As indicated by the post hoc sensitivity power analysis, the sample size was sufficient to detect only medium-to-large effects (Cohen, 2013). Therefore, it is plausible that smaller effects, potentially present in these outcomes, remained undetected due to sample size constraints.

In conclusion, this study provides preliminary evidence supporting the positive effects of mindfulness-based training in athletes on interoceptive awareness and SDNN parameter of HRV. Notably, this study offers an integrated mind–body approach to the efficacy of mindfulness, simultaneously assessing psychological and physiological outcomes that could be translated into sports context. However, further research is needed to confirm and extend these effects. A deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying mindfulness practice could provide a solid scientific basis for promoting the integration of this practice into sports training programs. This would offer a more holistic and ecological approach to optimizing the mental and physical balance of athletes, but also to provide applications into clinical and non-clinical contexts for the general wellbeing of people.

The results of our study provide preliminary indications and should be interpreted with caution, due to several limitations. First, the study sample size was relatively small (<50 participants), and most of the athletes practiced CrossFit. This limits the generalization of the results and the extensibility to the entire population of athletes. Furthermore, our study focused on a relatively short treatment period (only 8 weeks), which may limit the manifestation of the stable effects of the practice. Therefore, future research should conduct longer-duration longitudinal studies with larger and more heterogeneous samples of athletes to confirm and expand our evidence and evaluate the long-term effects of mindfulness. For instance, such studies may determine whether the non-significant descriptive improvements observed here persist or strengthen and reflect small effects detectable under conditions of increased statistical power. Another limitation concerns the use of the MAIA questionnaire: although this instrument includes eight distinct subscales assessing different dimensions of interoceptive awareness, in the present study a single composite score was calculated instead of separate subscale scores. This approach may have reduced the specificity of the findings regarding the various components of interoceptive awareness. Direct measures of sport performance are also needed to clarify whether and how the observed changes translate into performance-related outcomes. Finally, a further limitation of our study is that the training method did not consist of a standardized protocol but applied two of the most widely used techniques in mindfulness-based interventions. It may reduce reproducibility and make it more difficult to compare our findings with studies that adopt a standardized program.