A recent forum at the 8th Workshop on Cognitive Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (2024) emphasized the integration of cognitive linguistics into textbook design. Researchers from Shanghai International Studies University demonstrated how key theories such as construction grammar and schema theory are being actively implemented in the development of language textbooks for primary, junior, and senior high school students (Tian, 2024; Liu, 2024; Ren, 2024). Such attempts in textbook compilation provide textbook evaluation from a cognitive linguistic perspective, though the latter is still in an infant stage. It presents theoretical as well as applicable research gaps for this study to consider.

Drawing on Littlejohn’s (2011, p. 183) framework for analyzing language teaching materials, which builds upon the approach established by Richards and Rodgers (2001), this paper focuses particularly on the “design” level. This dimension captures the underlying rationale of textbooks, including their aims, principles of knowledge content selection and sequencing, subject matter, and types of learning activities (Deng and Wang, 2023). By applying these criteria to the content analysis of college English textbooks, this study seeks to uncover the representation and realization of language knowledge in the textbooks. Examining how tasks and texts are represented, and in what ways the stated aims align with actual material construction, can reveal how theoretical principles are operationalized in practice, thus illuminating the realization of the compilation philosophy and the instructional implementation.

Metaphor studies in China gained significant momentum in the 1990s, largely due to the introduction and popularization of Lakoff and Johnson’s conceptual metaphor theory (CMT). CMT has made several foundational arguments that have profoundly influenced the research field:

The first is the ubiquity of metaphor: “Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980/2003, p. 4).”

The second is the systematic nature of metaphor: Metaphorical concepts are inherently systematic in nature, thus enabling individuals to comprehend one domain of experience in terms of another. As the metaphorical concept is systematic in nature, the language employed to articulate this aspect of the concept is also systematic (ibid: 8). The systematicity in question has been demonstrated to facilitate coherent and structured thinking, and the inherent comprehension mechanism of metaphors also demonstrates its efficiency in language acquisition (Banaruee et al., 2019; Banaruee et al., 2023).

The third is the classification of conceptual metaphors: CMT has categorized conceptual metaphors into three types. Banaruee et al. (2019) then developed two types of metaphors with two comprehension mechanisms. Metaphor comprehension has utilized embodied cognition and the sensory motion system ever since the early period of language acquisition.

The inquiry into textbook analysis and evaluation of metaphor usage encompasses two major tenets.

First, the use of conceptual metaphor and grammatical metaphor in the textbooks was analyzed to reveal their linguistic manifestations, distribution patterns, and pedagogical implications based on comprehensive analysis, corpus-based methodology, and systematic investigation (Gao and Wang, 2021; Chen and Wu, 2015; Sznajder, 2010). Evaluation of effectiveness was carried out on business English textbooks against the teaching syllabus (Sun and Wang, 2013). Second, a metaphor questionnaire survey was conducted to learn about the users’ attitudes toward the textbooks in use (Kesen, 2010; Rathert and Cabaroglu, 2021; Han, 2014; Liu and Jiao, 2021). Comprehensive research for a closer examination of the use of metaphor in textbooks is lacking in this field.

Empirical studies on metaphor identification provide essential data for analyzing metaphors in discourse, enabling researchers to explore how metaphors function in various contexts. The three principal experimental methods in the field of metaphor research are the identification of metaphors, their comprehension, and the production of metaphors. Metaphor identification is widely regarded as the cornerstone of this tenet, as it provides the foundational data necessary for understanding how metaphors are processed and utilized in both language and thought.

Researchers have progressively refined how metaphors are identified. Zhong and Chen (2013) systematized the field by outlining five main approaches: form, logic, reference, multiple dimensions, and conceptual structure. Following this, Liu and Wang (2017) focused on the practical techniques, classifying the identification process into three types based on the level of human involvement: manual, semi-automated, and fully automated.

They also elaborated on specific identification criteria, including metaphor discourse markers (Goatly, 1997), semantic incongruity (Kittay, 1984), comparative mode (Liu and Cao, 2017; Steen et al., 2010; Pragglejaz Group, 2007), machine learning techniques (Ge et al., 2023; Zhang, 2019; Gedigian et al., 2006), and corpus-based tools (Alharbi, 2025). Together, these criteria and methods represent the evolving landscape of metaphor identification research, highlighting the integration of traditional linguistic analysis with advanced computational approaches. Together, these studies emphasize the methodological diversity and interdisciplinary nature of metaphor research, providing valuable tools for theoretical exploration and practical discourse analysis.

However, manual identification has faced significant criticism. Manual identification relies heavily on researchers’ metalinguistic intuition and subjective judgment, which may not accurately reflect the cognitive processes underlying metaphor use. Consequently, its validity and reliability have been called into question (Kövecses, 2011). In response to these limitations, a cross-disciplinary approach involving natural language processing (NLP)-driven metaphor identification has emerged, offering greater specificity and objectivity. However, despite its advantages, NLP techniques present substantial challenges for language researchers, particularly in terms of technical complexity and the need for interdisciplinary expertise. Furthermore, these methods often lack the flexibility required to adapt to diverse linguistic and cultural contexts, which limits their applicability in certain scenarios (Cao and Liu, 2022, p. 10). Therefore, although NLP-driven approaches are a significant advancement in metaphor identification, they have their own limitations, which highlight the need for continued methodological innovation and interdisciplinary collaboration.

The semi-autonomous approach to metaphor identification is characterized by its development from a theoretical framework into a robust and widely applicable methodology. The approach itself was systematically categorized as part of a larger evolution in identification techniques (Liu and Wang, 2017), emerging as a hybrid solution that combines the efficiency of computational corpus tools with the nuanced judgment of manual analysis. A key technical advancement in this method is the use of specialized software like Wmatrix. Its sophisticated semantic annotation capability specifically addresses a critical limitation of purely manual checking by reliably identifying vocabulary associated with the source and target domains of conceptual metaphors (Chen, 2022).

This advancement has been validated through successful empirical application. The semi-autonomous method has proven its versatility and reliability by being effectively deployed to analyze metaphorical patterns across a diverse range of genres, including news media, economic and political discourse, and educational materials (Xin and Shan, 2018; Sun, 2012; Zhang and Miao, 2012). Consequently, it has established itself as a scientifically sound approach for uncovering the cognitive and linguistic dimensions of metaphorical language.

Inspired by these advancements, this study takes a revised semi-automated approach to analyze textbooks. The aim is to contribute to a deeper understanding of how metaphors function in pedagogical contexts and provide insights to improve the design and evaluation of language teaching resources.

Cognitive linguistics takes conceptual metaphor as a common way of human thinking, which people use as cognitive mediation to conceptualize unfamiliar constructs. Metaphor manifests high efficiency in promoting comprehension, developing creative thinking, and applying theories to the study of language structure as well as linguistic discourse (Gao and Zhu, 2021, Hart and Lukeš, 2007).

In metaphorical representation, motion domains are applied to describe non-motion events (Khatin-Zadeh et al., 2017; Banaruee et al., 2019), for “motion events are the ubiquitous feature of our daily lives. Almost every corner of our lives includes some kind of motion activity (Banaruee et al., 2019, p. 3).” A typical example is the metaphorical description of the emotional state of anger in “He went up and came down” (Khatin-Zadeh et al., 2017, p. 120). Cross-linguistic evidence is given by Eskandari and Khatin-Zadeh (2021) to demonstrate the routine use of metaphor in describing abstract emotions by human beings. Theoretical applications have been made by conceptualizing “time” with spatial movement (Banaruee et al., 2019) and framing a three-dimensional geometric representation of mathematical concepts (Khatin-Zadeh et al., 2017). Gentner and Gentner (1983) also contended that the mental process of electricity is akin to flowing water.

Motion events are effective in describing abstract concepts, and their cognitive embodied philosophy lies in early language acquisition through the sensorimotor system (Banaruee et al., 2019). Motion events are particularly suitable for metaphorically describing domains characterized by dynamic changes over time.

In the model where non-motion concepts are represented in terms of motion events, an abstract concept can be grasped through a concrete one by functioning as a perceptual intermediary, enabling comprehension via sensory experience (Banaruee et al., 2019, p. 2). This mechanism of interpreting the abstract through the concrete constitutes a form of representational transformation (Khatin-Zadeh et al., 2017). The motion event that enables such transformation should include several essential components: an object (the figure) moves from a starting point (the source) to an endpoint (the goal), following a specific trajectory (the path). Additional elements integral to any motion event include the manner of motion and the reference frame, or ground, against which the movement is described (Banaruee et al., 2019, p. 3).

Following this metaphorical model and enlightened by embodied cognitive philosophy, this study creatively treats the non-motion construct of textbooks as motion events, rigorously expanding the application of existing “path-centered” analyses in ELT textbooks from an inner textbook ontological viewpoint focusing on language features (Banaruee et al., 2023) to an outer, larger, and macroscopic perspective of textbook compilation and structural designs targeting structural relations and cognitive processes. The concept itself, its knowledge contents, and its design pattern boast the same components with structural similarities to “motion events” in the above model, which is depicted in Table 1.

Structural similarities and component mapping from the abstract domain of textbooks to the concrete domain of motion events (such as journeys) provide the same embodied experience as Gibbs (2005)‘s “SPG” image schema. Consequently, the following study constructs the “SPG” schema to analyze a series of college English textbooks in the Chinese ELT context.

Textbook writing is a practice-oriented endeavor that must be guided by a coherent compilation philosophy, informed by contemporary developments in linguistic theory and the essence of language learning. Such a philosophy, together with a well-structured compilation procedure, forms the foundation for achieving pedagogical objectives. As Richards and Rodgers (2001) suggested, language theory shapes teaching methodology, which in turn informs syllabus design and textbook content.

The New Target College English Integrated Coursebooks (2nd Edition) (hereafter referred to as “the Integrated Coursebooks”) have been selected as the case study in this research for three main reasons. First, as a series developed in accordance with the latest College English Teaching Guidelines, the second edition of the Integrated Coursebooks was revised and published following the official release of the 2020 Guidelines. It is distinctive in knowledge representation to exhibit a national necessity. Second, the textbooks claim to be informed by cognitive linguistic theories (Liu et al., 2016), making them a typical example of textbooks developed under the guidance of contemporary cognitive linguistic frameworks. The analysis will reveal their cognitive linguistic basis of compilation and serve as a potential reference for textbook development in other ELT contexts. Third, the compilation team consists primarily of faculty members from the authors’ own institution, a top university in China. It is beneficial to carry out organized research work and facilitate follow-up research and communication with the compilation team.

The New Target College English Integrated Course series comprises four volumes and is compiled by one chief editor and four co-writers. The topics covered include university life, social activities, diverse cultural contexts, as well as science and technology. The total corpus of the four volumes amounts to 61,434 words. There is a generalized unit structure and components of the textbooks:

The above unit structure is a unified layout of a single unit in the Integrated Coursebooks. The discussion of texts refers to the two reading articles as Text A and Text B, and the analysis of tasks includes warm-up activities, reading comprehension, language in use, writing, and the project.

The qualitative analysis in this study draws on a corpus-based approach. To address the first research question, selected college English textbooks were compiled into a specialized corpus, and linguistic metaphors were identified using Wmatrix, an online corpus tool.

A semi-automated metaphor annotation framework was adopted to mitigate the limitations of purely manual or fully automatic methods, which often yield subjective or imprecise results. Wmatrix (Rayson, 2011) enables part-of-speech tagging and semantic tagging, facilitating the identification of key semantic domains through comparison with a reference corpus.

Statistical significance was determined using a log-likelihood threshold of 6.63 (p < 0.001), corresponding to a 99% confidence level, with the BNC Sampler Written as the reference corpus. A useful tool of Wmatrix is USAS (UCREL Semantic Annotation System). The reference corpus is BNC Sampler Written, which is a subset of 968,267 words taken from the BNC Sampler and is mainly subjected to semantic annotation in this study using the USAS annotation system.

To further identify conceptual metaphors, manual annotation following MIPVU (Steen et al., 2010) was performed by two independent raters. The raters are student researchers on metaphor identification who were trained academically and technically on this topic and selected it as the topic of their graduation paper at a top-notch university in Hunan. Pre-training on metaphor identification was conducted in two sessions with their supervisor and professors. An English native speaker was invited as the final arbiter of disputes. Twenty percent of the manually identified metaphor-loaded linguistic expressions were randomly chosen for inter-rater reliability. Measured by Cohen’s kappa, the inter-rater reliability reached a Kappa value of 0.6879, indicating substantial agreement.

Data processing was conducted for one and a half months following the steps below:

Uploading one of the corpora in “.txt” format to online Wmatrix 5.0, the annotation is automatically completed by the CLAWS and USAS functions. Setting the keyness analysis compared to the BNC sampler written, results show the list of the possible source domains and target domains for each corpus in the Figure 1.

This platform offers a web-based interface for accessing a suite of natural language processing (NLP) tools, including the UCREL Semantic Annotation System (USAS) for English semantic analysis and the Constituent Likelihood Automatic Word-tagging System (CLAWS) for part-of-speech tagging. Among the top key domains, the one with the most abstract semantic annotation is picked as the target domain, and the one with the most concrete semantic annotation is treated as the source domain. Then the “context” showing the original sentence concordance is retrieved to locate the metaphor carrier, and then a “broad sweep” function is used to locate the word with reference to the original text. Findings in the text are shown in the following:

The thematic realization in the Integrated Coursebooks employs metaphorical analogies to frame abstract concepts as embodied experiences, enabling students to “learn through experiencing” (Figure 3).

Overall, the metaphorical representation of knowledge contents in the unit with structured design shows an “hourglass” pattern, which is first claimed as a “general-specific-comprehensive” design pattern by the chief compiler of the textbooks (Liu and Shi, 2022, p. 201). This design pattern is positively manifested in this study, and is metaphorically graphed as follows:

The four books of the New Target College English Integrated Coursebooks have the same unit structure and layout, which also display the same structural design pattern as an “hourglass.” Table 3 are two units in Book Two that exhibit the patterned structure as a universal feature of the textbooks:

In Table 3, Unit Two of Book Two mainly focuses on the topic of “business,” the language skill of “comparing,” and the language expression of polysemous construction. These elements are integrated into the unit theme, and through a repeated design of tasks on the three aspects, the unit forms an hourglass structural pattern. From the upper bulb of the hourglass, the massive topic of “business” is narrowed down to Text A on “traits” and Text B about “a story.” Through the neck, linguistic knowledge is filled out and practiced. At the bottom, writing and projects employ output tasks of writing and team presentations to practice and reinforce the three aspects of knowledge as well as skills in a comprehensive manner. Unit Five in the table displays the same pattern. Detailed elaboration is in the following paragraphs:

Taking another example, Text A of Book 3, Unit 6 is titled “Life as You See It.” It addresses personal attitudes toward life—a topic highly relevant to college students navigating a rapidly changing world, yet abstract for those with limited real-world experience. The unit’s theme introduction constructs meaning with conceptual metaphors such as THE WORLD IS YOURSELF, NEGATIVE EMOTION IS A PLACE ONE FREQUENTS, and DEPRESSION IS POSSESSION. These metaphors collectively conceptualize the theme by suggesting that happiness or depression depends on the “place” one chooses to inhabit mentally, which is a common metaphor as emotions are often described in this way (Khatin-Zadeh et al., 2017). Knowing how to deal with negative emotions totally depends on your reaction, and it can absolutely be treated positively, thereby encouraging positive thinking and strong emotional resilience.

The thematic introduction is followed by two complementary quotations—one from the Chinese classic I Ching, and the other by William James—both reinforcing the value of tenacity and self-motivation in cultivating a positive outlook on life. The follow-up text materials offer a visual presentation of these components.

The unit begins by introducing depression in a warm-up section, followed by oral practice exploring potential causes of depression among college students. To address learners’ possible apprehensions, a narrative essay structured in a “problem–solution” format is included as the reading task. This essay recounts the author’s personal experience of overcoming depression, allowing readers to empathize with the author’s spiritual journey and develop their own problem–solution awareness. With deep engagement, key concepts are internalized and reinforced via mental imagery and repeated practice, forming an interconnected knowledge network.

After reading, tasks are followed to extend from the reading materials and to integrate language skill development, critical thinking, and intercultural awareness. Receptive tasks (Nation, 1990) focus on chunk learning of “verb + noun” constructions, while productive tasks reinforce linguistic structures and promote intercultural competence through translation between source and target languages. This integrated approach supports the incremental acquisition of vocabulary—from receptive to productive mastery (Lyu et al., 2022). Throughout the unit, human metaphors are used to conceptualize depression as a person who is mysterious and unfamiliar, making abstract notions more relatable.

Metaphorical representation with structured design employs embodied cognition effectively in a way that can enhance learning efficiency through self-experience. Research has shown that human language acquisition “use an analogy to relate similar entities to the first relevant iconic object they encounter through a process of subsumption simulated by perceptual Gestalt (Banaruee et al., 2023, p. 3).” Human metaphors coherently enable the experiential perception (Chen and Yu, 2022), while tasks designed with text materials practiced and reinforced the trinity of knowledge contents.

This compilation makes use of a systematic structured design to coherently integrate the reading materials with task drilling. The human metaphor is repeatedly employed to construct the meaning that, though depression is initially strong to you, upon knowing, he/she might eventually become an acquaintance. The conceptualization of the unit theme is represented in this way and in a holistic manner throughout reading to tasking.

Aligned with the National Teaching Guidelines and the advocacy for morality education, the New Target College English Integrated Coursebooks establish “three-in-one” teaching objectives to develop learners’ language competence, critical thinking, and intercultural competence.

Among the three objectives, language competence serves as the primary and foundational pillar. The development of trinity competence is predicated on the understanding that a solid command of language structures is a prerequisite for fostering critical thinking—encompassing both the disposition and skills as defined in the “Delphi Report” (Facione, 1990). As Liu and Shi (2022, p.163) proposed, such thinking ultimately emerges from solid language mastery. Concurrently, moral cultivation is seamlessly interwoven throughout the language learning process, whether by shaping a constructive attitude toward life’s challenges or by guiding students in the appreciation of artistic works.

In the fulfillment of the teaching objectives, metaphorical representations serve as the lubricant and, meanwhile, a pathway to realize the design in textbook development. It functions in the following way:

First of all, language competence could be efficiently trained through chunk learning and linguistic construction in the textbooks, and conceptual metaphors provide cognitive motivation to help learners achieve cognitive equivalence and fluency. The centrality of meaning induces a dynamic view of grammatical structures. Any change in form will lead to a meaning shift; however, it is fundamentally motivated and interconnected through metaphorical mechanisms. Since language is usage-based, the rigid application of grammar rules may not be accurate, as language is subjective and varies according to contexts or speech intentions. The development of metaphorical competence could enhance conceptual fluency (Danesi, 1995) and help achieve cognitive equivalence.

Second, since language is the expression of thought, learning a language and mastering linguistic structures could ultimately lead to the training of thinking ability. The mastery of the laws of language contributes to criticality in an unnoticeable way. In the process, conceptual metaphor helps to establish the network of meaning and linguistic structures and offers motivation for its relational change, which is effective in developing learners’ dialectical, abstract, and systematic thinking abilities. The language knowledge network also induces creativity and imagination. For example, in Unit “Life as You See It”, the conceptual metaphor DEPRESSION IS POSSESSION gives learners a different perspective on the issue of depression, viewing it as a common object that everyone may possess, with the only matter being how people choose to act on it. A different but dialectical perspective on “the issue of depression” endows learners with a rational and divergent thinking pattern that, through practice, would be beneficial for the training of critical thinking.

Third, intercultural competence could be trained with upright cultural views and intercultural awareness. Through observing, appreciating, and comparing the target language and the source language, cultural commonalities and differences are recognized. With cultural comparison and experience of diversified cultural conduct, proper attitudes toward common issues, a broader horizon of intercultural occasions, and sound judgment on trending topics will be established. In the process, the cultural connotation that conceptual metaphor carries in language content can boost a deeper understanding of cultures and trigger diverse perspectives on international issues, problems, or conflicts.

As illustrated in Unit One of Book One, the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY is employed to narrate the exile experiences of the Chinese composer Xian Xinghai. During his time abroad, Xian encountered various hardships and immersed himself in the lives of people from other cultures, ultimately composing several monumental musical works. In contrast, another cultural figure in this unit, Albert Einstein, also an avid music enthusiast, regarded music as a devoted friend from whom he sought emotional solace. Despite their different approaches—Xian drawing inspiration from life’s struggles while Einstein turned to music for inner comfort—both characters placed profound value on music.

As a universal art form, music transcends cultural boundaries. When people from diverse backgrounds share the same melodies and resonate with similar emotions, their intercultural awareness is naturally enhanced. Through the lens of these two distinct lives, we see how music serves not only as personal sustenance but also as a bridge to mutual understanding.

All in all, the training of language competence, critical thinking, and intercultural competence is inextricably intertwined and can be realized essentially with language competencies in textbook development through a metaphorical pathway. Textbook compilation and design utilizing a metaphorical representation could potentially achieve the teaching objectives in an effective and well-organized way.