This study utilized the Straussian version of grounded theory, which is widely adopted in educational research (Stough and Lee, 2021). The researcher analyzed data comprehensively and systematically and establish connections among concepts with high accuracy and complexity through grounded theory (Corbin and Strauss, 2014). Accordingly, this study employed grounded theory with semi-structured interviews to obtain authentic insights into children’s museum education. The collected data were coded in three stages and the researcher extracted core concepts from the interview transcripts by using NVivo 15. Ultimately, a model of factors influencing children’s museum education from teachers’ perspectives was constructed. This not only enhances the explanatory power of the model but also offers a novel perspective on museum education for children.

In recent years, China has experienced a museum boom, which has expanded both the number of institutions and the scope of educational programs (Yu, 2025). Museums in China are generally categorized into four types: historical, art, science and technology, and natural museums, with historical museums being among the most significant and popular categories (Zhang and Courty, 2021). Henan Province is recognized as a national leader in cultural preservation and promotion (Wu, 2024), and more than 400 museums are located here (The People’s Government of Henan Province, 2025). Therefore, Henan Province was selected as the research site for this study. Given that many museums in Henan emphasize regional culture, antiquities, and history (Chen and Ryan, 2020), this study focused on children’s museum education in historical museums.

Considering the importance of museum education for young children, who experience less academic pressure and have more opportunities to engage in such activities, two main criteria guided participant recruitment. First, both preschool and primary school teachers were sought in order to cover children across different educational levels. In this study, the term “preschool” refers to educational institutions for children aged three to six. Second, consideration was given to teachers’ level of teaching experience. Purposeful sampling (Suri, 2011) was employed to select participants from preschools and primary schools located in both rural and urban areas of Henan. Based on these criteria, 20 preschool teachers and 25 primary school teachers were recruited, all of whom were individually interviewed after providing informed and voluntary consent (see Table 1).

To ensure the collection and analysis of data within authentic problem contexts, this study followed the principle of theoretical sampling. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted in May 2025, with the interview outline designed according to the research purpose (as shown in Table 2). Each interview lasted between 21 and 49 min. Sampling continued until no new categories emerged and theoretical saturation was achieved. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim by the researcher. Ethical approval was obtained from Zhengzhou University of Science and Technology, as well as from the principal of the participating school. To maintain confidentiality, pseudonyms were used for all participants.

The study adopted the three-level coding strategy proposed by Corbin and Strauss (2014) and employed NVivo 15 in order to systematically read and analyze the interview data. Through open coding, axial coding, and selective coding, the researcher analyzed the data in a bottom-up manner (Liu and Zhang, 2024). A comprehensive model was constructed to illustrate teachers’ perceptions of museum education for children after the theoretical saturation was confirmed.

The initial stage of data analysis was open coding and it included reading the interview transcripts, segmenting the data, assigning descriptive labels, extracting concepts, and developing categories (Corbin and Strauss, 2014). There were 25 initial concepts identified after removing irrelevant materials and consolidating redundant codes. Through comparative analysis, nine broader categories were abstracted. The results of the open coding are summarized in Table 3.

Axial coding constituted the second stage of analysis. During this stage, the researcher aimed to clarify the relationships between concepts and categories based on the results of open-coding (Stough and Lee, 2021). After examining the nine categories recognized in the first stage, there were four core categories identified: outside environment, institutional support, teachers’ experiences, and cognitive–emotional aspects.

As the final stage of analysis, selective coding aims to specify the connections between the core categories and the main categories (see Table 4). This study primarily concentrated on teachers’ perceptions of museum education for children. Comparative analysis indicated that external objective conditions (e.g., external environment and institutional support) and internal subjective factors (e.g., teacher experiences and cognitive–emotional aspects) constitute the primary influences shaping teachers’ practices in museum education. Each core and subcategory was described and illustrated, with labeling to the original data if necessary. To ensure the credibility and trustworthiness of the analysis process, peer debriefing (Creswell and Creswell, 2017) and an inquiry audit by two scholars were conducted to refine coding decisions, verify English translations, and confirm the accuracy of the findings (see Figure 1).

Teacher experience refers to teachers’ overall experiences related to museum education. It encompasses their professional competence, personal background, and prior exposure to museums, all of which shape how they implement museum education. Positive experiences often strengthen teachers’ willingness to participate in museum education, whereas negative ones can hinder their motivation (Yue et al., 2024). Understanding these intrinsic connections is therefore essential. Teacher experience in this study can be organized into three dimensions: activity experience, personal experience, and perceptional barriers.

In this study, teachers’ activity experience refers to their subjective perceptions of children’s museum education and it includes two main aspects: subjective perceptions and convenience. According to the interview transcripts, many teachers believe that museum education is “a meaningful learning opportunity for children” and “important to promote children’s development” (T12, T2). “Implementing museum education helps children have more access to new information and knowledge. Some knowledge or exhibits which are difficult to present in class can be shown in a more vivid way through museum education” (T6). Furthermore, some participants think museum visits have positive effects on establishing children’s cultural identity and sense of belonging. One teacher mentioned, “Children can not only feel the cultural atmosphere but also strengthen their cultural confidence” (T7). However, according to the interview transcripts, some teachers are hesitant to implement museum education. One teacher explained, “I almost have no opportunities to decide which museum to visit or how to organize museum education. I just follow what the school management orders and this makes me feel powerless” (T9). This is in alignment with the findings of previous research that school settings can strongly shape teachers’ practices (Khaleel et al., 2021).

Teachers’ personal experiences, in this study, refer to teachers’ previous personal experiences related to museum visits or museum education, including their museum visits when they were young, related educational background and professional experiences. Previous research indicated that teachers’ personal experiences (e.g., life experience) had a significant effect on teachers’ teaching philosophy and practices (Gao et al., 2024; Kacetl and Klímová, 2021). For instance, one participant mentioned, “When I was young, I went to museums several times. These experiences left a deep impression on me and developed my interests to Chinese culture. As a teacher, I would like to create similar opportunities for my students.” Some teachers also expressed the positive influence that training has on their organization of museum education. For example, T4 mentioned, “I learned theories about kindergarten field trips such as museum visits and how to organize them through university courses. During this process, I felt the importance of out-of-school educational activities. So, I really want my students to have experiences of those activities. In museum education, teachers need guide and allow children to experience it firsthand.” Such examples illustrate how personal experience can foster teachers’ commitment to museum education.

Despite the benefits, teachers have encountered various obstacles of implementing museum education. Museum visits are common means for teachers to implement museum education and educators express great concern about student safety during the visit (Krantz and Downey, 2021). As mentioned by some respondents, “Every time we go on a museum visit, the number of children makes supervision and management challenging. I rarely have time to focus on what children are actually learning. The procedures of these activities are simplified. Some visits are generally limited to nearby museums for practical and safety reasons” (T2, T13, T17). Furthermore, professional challenges also surfaced and influenced the implementation of museum education. “Museum education covers a wide range of knowledge, which creates certain difficulties for me. Sometimes I cannot answer children’s questions” (T9). Teachers’ anxiety and pressure can be increased if they lack related interdisciplinary knowledge (Yue et al., 2024). According to the interview data, it was revealed that student management was another challenge for museum education. As one teacher explained, “When we take children to museums, it usually takes a whole day. Children tend to be restless and distracted especially in the end of the activity. At that time, it is difficult for me to effectively guide children and help them actively participate in activities.”

The findings reveal a clear difference between teachers’ practical conceptions of museum education and those reflected in theoretical literature. Most teachers believe that the primary type of museum education in school contexts is school-organized visits aimed at enriching knowledge and supporting curricular goals. Such understandings emphasize structural participation, collective discipline, and predefined educational outcomes. In contrast, museums are commonly conceptualized as free-choice learning environments, where learning is driven by visitors’ interests, motivations, and meaning-making processes (Falk et al., 2006; Hooper-Greenhill, 1992). From this perspective, museum education is not defined by what is taught, but by what learners choose and how they interpret their experiences.

This divergence suggests that when teachers recognize the educational value of museums for children, their practice-oriented conceptions tend to privilege schooling over learner autonomy, which reflects the constraints that school-based museum visits often face. The findings therefore highlight a key tension between the principles of free-choice learning and the realities of formal schooling in school-led museum visits.

The results of this study revealed that internal factors such as teachers’ experiences, cognitions and emotions jointly influenced their implementation of museum education for children. On the one hand, positive and meaningful school or personal museum visits or effective opportunities to guide children can enhance teachers’ confidence in organizing museum education. On the other hand, barriers (e.g., large class sizes, low participation in decision-making and insufficient interdisciplinary knowledge) can reduce teachers’ motivation and often generate teachers’ anxiety or self-doubt. These findings echo the results of prior studies which indicate that teacher beliefs, prior experiences, and affective dispositions play a decisive role in shaping classroom practices (Gao et al., 2024; Karnezou et al., 2021). They also align with previous studies that self-efficacy influences teachers engagement in innovative practices (Woodcock et al., 2022). Furthermore, the findings of this study highlight the interaction between teachers’ experiences and their emotional states. Negative experiences (e.g., difficulties and barriers during museum visits) can undermine teachers’ self-efficacy and reduce their willingness to participate. Therefore, teachers’ training should not only enhance their interdisciplinary knowledge required in museum education but also focus on teachers’ emotional resilience and self-efficacy. Measures (e.g., professional learning communities, mentorship, reflective practices) can help teachers integrate positive experiences into their engagement with museum education.

From this study, it is clear that external environments, particularly support from schools and families, are important to the implementation of museum education. Teachers’ motivation can be encouraged with well-planned institutional support, but excessive procedures or lack of resources from schools limits their participation in museum education. Similarly, families’ involvement varies in museum education. The results demonstrate that some parents believe that museum visits were valuable for children’s learning, while others express concerns and are reluctant to let their children participate in museum visits. These findings are in accordance with results of prior studies that institutional support and parents’ involvement influence teachers’ practices (Stipek, 2012; Lam et al., 2010). The results also extend previous research by showing how school and family factors affect teachers’ willingness to organize museum education. According to the results, we found that improving museum education required a high quality external environment and strong school-family-museum partnerships. For schools, it involves reducing approval-related barriers, providing sufficient funding and ensuring teachers’ participation in decision-making. For families, it means raising parents’ awareness of the value of museum education. Measures such as increasing communication and outreach programs can be taken to develop parents as collaborative partners in children’s museum education.

Museum resources are increasingly necessary for children to have access to cultural heritage and provide them with unique learning opportunities (González-Herrera et al., 2023; Karnezou et al., 2013). Many museums offer tactile tours and hands-on workshops to enhance audiences’ visiting experiences (Cavazos Quero et al., 2021). The results of this study demonstrated that teachers valued museum resources but they often struggled with difficulties and barriers (e.g., limited professional assistance and guidance, uneven museum distribution and lack of child-centered design).

Through interviews, teachers expressed difficulties they encountered in integrating museum resources into school curriculum and highlighted the need for docent explanations and interactive facilities designed for children. Furthermore, the disparities in museum distributions between rural and urban areas further restricted access and this limited rural teachers’ implementation of museum education for children. Previous research also pointed out that there were structural inequalities in access to museum resources between different areas (Zakaria, 2024; Chang et al., 2021) and the challenges of integrating museum education into school curriculum (Avgousti and Papaioannou, 2023). Emerging evidence suggests that online and digital museum resources can provide virtual access to cultural heritage and mitigate such disparities (Li et al., 2022). Accordingly, policies and museums should focus on optimizing museum resources, developing exhibits or activities tailored for children, and offering effective training for teachers and museum practitioners to facilitate the integration of resources into classroom practices. By addressing both material and human resource gaps, museums can become more inclusive and accessible educational partners.

In recent years, policy discourse related to museum education has attracted increasing attention. In 2019, the International Council of Museums (ICOM) accepted that museum exhibitions and related educational programs can promote and empower teaching and learning and are influenced by policies (Hansson and Öhman, 2022). A supportive policy framework can establish strategic foundation for open museum education so that the external and internal museum practices and educational programming can be designed in an inclusive and co-created way (Atenas et al., 2020). This study found that Chinese museum education is a continuous and dynamic process that is influenced by multidimensional social contexts. Governments and educational institutions should develop policies and strategies to bridge school and museum educational activities (Feliu-Torruella et al., 2021). Accordingly, this study contributes by highlighting the need for policy frameworks that move beyond temporary incentives toward long-term institutionalization. Such frameworks should ensure equitable allocation of resources across urban and rural contexts. Moreover, structured professional development for teachers and museum personnel should be provided. It is also urgent to integrate museum education into broader curriculum reform. Through offering a clear and coherent policy context for children’s museum education, governments can enhance its sustainability and reinforce its role in children’s learning.