Mental health challenges such as depression and anxiety represent some of the most pressing public health concerns worldwide, with growing prevalence rates across both clinical and non-clinical populations (World Health Organization, 2023). In the Middle East, and particularly within Saudi Arabia, the rapid pace of social change, economic transitions, and shifting cultural dynamics have placed additional psychological demands on individuals, intensifying the need for effective strategies that enhance resilience and psychological wellbeing (Al-Hanawi et al., 2020). Against this backdrop, the study of mindfulness and its association with emotional regulation has emerged as a promising avenue for understanding how individuals manage distress and maintain mental health stability.

Mindfulness is commonly defined as the intentional and non-judgmental awareness of the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Conceptually, it can be understood both as a state - a temporary condition cultivated through practice - and as a trait, referring to a relatively stable individual disposition toward being attentive and aware of present experiences (Brown and Ryan, 2003; Baer et al., 2006). While mindfulness as a state reflects moment-to-moment awareness induced by meditation or attention-based exercises, dispositional mindfulness represents a more enduring tendency that influences how individuals habitually perceive and respond to emotional stimuli. This distinction is central to the present study, which focuses on trait mindfulness as an individual characteristic associated with emotion regulation and mental health outcome. Research has consistently demonstrated that higher levels of trait mindfulness are linked to lower symptoms of depression and anxiety, likely through enhanced regulatory processes and reduced maladaptive cognitive patterns such as rumination (Kuyken et al., 2010; Hadjiilieva, 2025).

Emotion regulation refers to the processes - cognitive, behavioral, and physiological-through which individuals influence the intensity, duration, and expression of their emotions (Gross, 2002; Bridges et al., 2004). Among the strategies most frequently studied are cognitive reappraisal, which involves reframing the meaning of an emotional stimulus, and expressive suppression, which involves inhibiting outward signs of emotion. Theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that these strategies have differential consequences: cognitive reappraisal is generally associated with improved wellbeing and lower psychological distress, while suppression is linked to heightened depressive and anxious symptoms (Campbell-Sills and Barlow, 2006; Desrosiers et al., 2013; Peh et al., 2017).

From a theoretical standpoint, Gross’s (2002) process model of emotion regulation provides a compelling framework for understanding how mindfulness shapes emotional functioning. Within this model, emotions unfold through a sequence of stages, ranging from situation selection and attentional deployment to cognitive change and response modulation, each offering an opportunity for regulatory influence. Mindfulness, characterized by purposeful and nonjudgmental awareness of present-moment experience, may enhance adaptive regulation by increasing sensitivity to early emotional cues and internal states. This assertion is supported by empirical findings suggesting that mindfulness promotes interoceptive awareness and attentional control, skills that enable individuals to detect emotional activation earlier and apply reappraisal strategies more effectively (Teper et al., 2013; Lindsay and Creswell, 2017). This heightened awareness facilitates the timely use of constructive strategies such as cognitive reappraisal, allowing individuals to reinterpret emotionally charged situations in a more balanced manner. In parallel, mindfulness reduces reliance on maladaptive strategies such as suppression, which often exacerbate physiological arousal and hinder emotional processing (Keng et al., 2013; Garland et al., 2015b). These mechanisms justify the assumption that mindfulness contributes to adaptive emotional functioning through attentional refinement, metacognitive monitoring, and acceptance-based processing.

Recent integrative frameworks have expanded on Gross’s model, proposing that mindfulness fosters a meta-awareness that allows individuals to observe emotional experiences from a decentered perspective rather than being overwhelmed by them (Garland et al., 2015b; Brockman et al., 2017). This metacognitive stance promotes openness and acceptance, enabling individuals to disengage from automatic or habitual emotional reactions and to respond with greater flexibility (Parmentier et al., 2019). Empirical findings consistently support this theoretical link: mindfulness training has been associated with enhanced cognitive reappraisal and reduced expressive suppression, indicating a shift toward more adaptive regulatory patterns (Zhou et al., 2023; Pang et al., 2025). Moreover, studies employing structural equation modeling have shown that emotion regulation mediates the associations between mindfulness and psychological symptoms, suggesting that the interplay among these constructs can be quantitatively modeled to capture their convergent validity and directional relationships (Desrosiers et al., 2013; Garland et al., 2015a; Freudenthaler et al., 2017).

Despite growing international evidence, research exploring these mechanisms in Arab societies remains limited. Cultural norms regarding emotional expression, coping, and mental health stigma may influence how mindfulness and emotion regulation are enacted and experienced in non-Western settings (Dwairy, 2006). For example, in collectivist cultures, suppression may sometimes be socially adaptive, yet it can still contribute to long-term psychological strain. Given these sociocultural nuances, there is a clear need to evaluate mindfulness and its correlates in the Saudi population, not only to test the cross-cultural generalizability of existing models but also to inform culturally adapted interventions that enhance emotional wellbeing and resilience. Such exploration holds both theoretical and applied value, as it can clarify whether established Western frameworks of mindfulness and emotion regulation accurately capture emotional functioning in Arab contexts.

Building on this foundation, the present study seeks to clarify the structural relationships between mindfulness, emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression), and psychological symptoms of depression and anxiety. Specifically, the study examines (a) the pathways linking mindfulness to emotion regulation strategies, (b) the associations between emotion regulation strategies and symptoms of depression and anxiety, and (c) whether mindfulness exerts a direct negative influence on distress. In addition, it explores whether emotion regulation mediates the relationship between mindfulness and psychological symptoms, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of their interrelations within a non-Western cultural framework.

The present study aimed to examine the pathways linking mindfulness to emotion regulation strategies and psychological symptoms among adults in Saudi Arabia. Using structural equation modeling, the findings revealed that mindfulness was positively associated with cognitive reappraisal but unrelated to expressive suppression. In turn, cognitive reappraisal predicted lower levels of depression and anxiety, whereas expressive suppression predicted higher psychological distress. Interestingly, mindfulness demonstrated small but significant direct positive associations with both depression and anxiety when emotion regulation variables were included, suggesting possible suppression effects. Furthermore, mediation analyses indicated that emotion regulation partially mediated the relationship between mindfulness and psychological symptoms, although total effects were non-significant.

These results align partially—but not fully—with prior international findings. Consistent with numerous studies, higher mindfulness predicted greater cognitive reappraisal and reduced reliance on expressive suppression, supporting the theoretical view that mindfulness enhances emotional awareness and flexible regulation (Gross, 2015; Garland et al., 2009). Similarly, the observed inverse associations between cognitive reappraisal and both depression and anxiety mirror prior evidence indicating that reappraisal serves as a protective factor against emotional distress (Aldao et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2014). The positive associations between expressive suppression and psychological symptoms are likewise congruent with the literature emphasizing the maladaptive nature of suppression, particularly in collectivistic contexts where emotional restraint may be socially reinforced but psychologically costly (Butler et al., 2007).

However, the small positive direct pathways observed between mindfulness and both depression and anxiety diverge from the bulk of prior research, which typically reports inverse associations (Brown et al., 2007; Keng et al., 2011). A plausible account is that, in a predominantly non-meditating community sample (54.2% had never practiced in our sample), dispositional mindfulness may reflect heightened monitoring of internal experience more than an acceptance-based stance. This distinction is central to Monitor and Acceptance Theory (MAT), which proposes that attention monitoring can increase the salience and intensity of unpleasant thoughts and sensations, whereas acceptance is the component expected to attenuate reactivity and protect wellbeing (Lindsay and Creswell, 2017).

In this context, greater self-awareness may initially make distress more noticeable and reportable before regulatory skills are sufficiently consolidated. This interpretation is also consistent with evidence that mindfulness-related practices can, for some individuals and under some conditions, be accompanied by challenging or distressing experiences (e.g., heightened emotional exposure, unpleasant arousal, or distressing cognitions), particularly when engagement is irregular or lacks adequate scaffolding (Lomas et al., 2015; Lindahl et al., 2017; Britton, 2019).

Importantly, this pattern may be further influenced by the Observe facet of mindfulness, which primarily reflects heightened attention to internal and external experiences. In the present study, mindfulness was modeled as a global construct, and the Observe facet was not examined separately. Prior research suggests that, particularly in non-meditating or clinical samples, higher observing may be associated with increased symptom reporting when not accompanied by acceptance or non-reactivity skills (Baer et al., 2006; Baer et al., 2008; Desrosiers et al., 2013).

Emerging evidence indicates that the Observe facet may function differently in clinical contexts. Psychometric studies have shown variability in the structure and behavior of this facet in clinical samples (Curtiss and Klemanski, 2014; Williams et al., 2014). More recently, anxiety sensitivity has been shown to differentially influence responses to Observe items in clinical populations, potentially inflating associations with distress-related outcomes (Moskow Diamond et al., 2025). Within this context, the positive direct associations observed in the current model may partly reflect heightened perceptual sensitivity to internal states rather than maladaptive effects of mindfulness per se.

Cultural norms surrounding emotional expression may further shape these associations. In Saudi society, emotional restraint is often socially valued, and expressive suppression may carry meanings related to respect, modesty, and self-control. While suppression is typically associated with maladaptive outcomes in Western samples (Gross and John, 2003), evidence from collectivist contexts suggests a more nuanced pattern. Studies from East Asian cultures, such as China and Japan, indicate that suppression is less consistently linked to psychopathology and may retain some social functionality (Matsumoto et al., 2008; Weiss et al., 2022). Within this cultural framework, the modest effects of suppression observed in the current model—and the indirect pathways linking mindfulness, regulation strategies, and distress—may reflect a hybrid pattern in which suppression remains socially adaptive in certain contexts but contributes to internal distress when employed rigidly or excessively.

The mediation results further emphasize the dual role of mindfulness. While mindfulness indirectly reduced psychological symptoms through enhanced reappraisal, its total effects were non-significant, suggesting that mindfulness operates through both protective and risk-related mechanisms depending on individual differences in regulation capacity. This aligns with emerging evidence that mindfulness without concurrent regulatory skills may increase emotional exposure without promoting resilience (Britton, 2019). In Saudi samples, where structured mindfulness programs are still scarce and often adapted from Western prototypes, this highlights the need for culturally tailored interventions that integrate mindfulness with cognitive and emotion-focused strategies to maximize psychological benefits.

The findings also have important implications for mental health practice and research in Saudi Arabia. Given that only a minority of participants practiced mindfulness regularly, promoting structured mindfulness-based interventions within educational and occupational settings could foster healthier emotional processing. However, these interventions must be adapted to respect cultural norms around privacy, modesty, and spirituality. Integrating mindfulness with Islamic contemplative traditions—such as reflective prayer (tafakkur) and remembrance (dhikr)—may enhance cultural acceptance and deepen emotional engagement, as suggested by recent culturally sensitive mindfulness frameworks in Arab contexts (Aldbyani, 2025; Kadir, 2025).

In summary, this study supports a nuanced model in which mindfulness contributes to emotional wellbeing primarily through its influence on cognitive reappraisal, while its direct links to distress may reflect early or incomplete stages of mindful awareness within a society still developing familiarity with such practices. These findings underscore the importance of cultural context in interpreting psychological pathways and call for more longitudinal and intervention-based research in non-Western settings.

This study enhances understanding of how mindfulness contributes to emotional wellbeing within a non-Western context. The findings indicate that mindfulness is associated with more adaptive emotion regulation, particularly through greater use of cognitive reappraisal, which in turn relates to lower levels of depressive and anxious symptoms. At the same time, the small positive direct associations observed between mindfulness and psychological distress suggest that the effects of mindfulness may depend on the depth of practice, individual regulation capacity, and broader cultural familiarity with mindfulness-related skills.

Several considerations should be kept in mind when interpreting these findings. The cross-sectional design limits causal conclusions regarding the directionality of the observed relationships. In addition, all constructs were assessed using self-report measures, which may be influenced by shared method variance or response biases. Data were also collected anonymously through an online survey, which restricted the ability to conduct individual follow-up or obtain more detailed clinical information beyond self-reported history. Future research would benefit from longitudinal or intervention-based designs, the inclusion of behavioral or physiological indicators, and more comprehensive clinical assessments to further clarify these mechanisms.

Despite these considerations, the present findings underscore the importance of cultural context in interpreting mindfulness-related processes. In societies where mindfulness practices are still emerging and often adapted from Western models, mindfulness may initially heighten awareness of internal experiences before regulatory skills are fully consolidated. Accordingly, culturally sensitive approaches that integrate mindfulness with cognitive and emotion-focused strategies—and that resonate with local values and contemplative traditions—may be particularly important for maximizing psychological benefits. Continued research in non-Western settings is essential to refine theory, guide culturally grounded interventions, and advance a more globally inclusive understanding of mindfulness and emotional health.