The participant, concept, context (PCC) method was employed to develop the eligibility criteria and to formulate the review question for this scoping review (Peters et al., 2020).

The following broad research question is posed: What is the scope and nature of scholarly research on undergraduate students’ EF skills in HE as published between 2014 and 2024? Sub-questions of specific interest are: How many relevant studies on EF skills in HE have been published? What types of research designs have been used in these studies? What key themes or focus areas have been addressed in the literature on undergraduate students’ EF skills?

Participants included undergraduate students of any geographical background, gender or race, who were enrolled for any diploma or degree qualification of any HE institution globally. The setting entailed academic contexts in HE. Due to the focus, the eligibility criteria excluded preschool, primary school, or high school learners as well as post-graduate students. The concept of primary interest was the EF skills of the participants. No eligibility criteria regarding a specific educational field were specified, but ultimately, health-related research was excluded to maintain clear focus, coherence, and consistency considering mapping studies in which EF serves as the primary concept of interest in academic contexts in HE. Table 1 summarises the inclusion and exclusion criteria that are described in the following sections.

This scoping review produced a total of 28 fully qualifying research studies in the publication period 2014 to 2024 and is illustrated by year of publication in Figure 2.

The line graph in Figure 2 indicates a sharp rise in scholarly attention in the last 3 years, as 16 of the studies were conducted between 2021 and 2024. This suggests that the topic is gaining traction and underscores the timeliness of this review. The emphasis on recent research further indicates that the identified constraints and practical consequences are based on contemporary findings. Including recent studies ensures the research reflects current trends and developments in education, providing the most recent information in the field.

Figure 3 portrays the number of included studies conducted globally. The studies were conducted with undergraduate students in 14 countries—nine in the United States, three in Turkey and Ecuador, two in Canada and Singapore, and one each in Taiwan, Morocco, Pakistan, Ireland, Brazil, Israel, China, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. Research findings indicate a heavy emphasis on studies in the northern hemisphere (84%), while a lack of studies in the southern hemisphere (16%) is evident. Only one country, Morocco, is located on the African continent. This regional disparity reveals an obvious prevalence of studies conducted in western and northern locations, where HE systems tend to have greater resources and more sophisticated technology. In addition, the small number of global south studies, especially in Africa and regions of Asia and South America, raises the possibility that many HE students’ psychological, socioeconomic, and academic experiences are not adequately reflected in current research.

Of the 28 included publications that met the inclusion criteria, only a small number, n = 2 (7%) employed a qualitative research design. The majority, n = 24 (86%), employed a quantitative design, and the remaining fraction, n = 2 (7%), used a mixed or multi-methods technique. EF can be evaluated using a range of methodologies, with the predominant ones being laboratory assessments (computerised cognitive training) and behavioural rating scales. These methodologies exhibit certain advantages and constraints in the evaluation of EF. Specifically, the employment of laboratory assessments raises an issue regarding the lack of uniformity between results and real-world scenarios, given the high artificiality of neuropsychological experimental tests (Ramos-Galarza et al., 2019). Students’ Grade Point Average (GPA) is commonly utilised as a method for evaluating academic performance, as evidenced by various articles (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 24). Solely one investigation (12) opted not to utilise GPA for this purpose. Diverse assessment tools, such as scales, assessments, surveys, and questionnaires, are employed to evaluate a range of components, including self-efficacy, CF, WM, EF, and academic achievement, among others. Experimental analyses were conducted in four instances (21, 22, 23, 28), whereas two studies (9, 25) comprise a literature review to consolidate discoveries on EF. The self-report questionnaires that were employed in the included studies are depicted in Table 3.

Performance-based tasks are straightforward and objective assessments of core EFs (Follmer, 2021) implemented in the studies, as depicted in Table 4.

The articles incorporated in this study have a wide range of sample sizes. Most studies (12 studies: 1, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, 18, 19, 23, 26, 28) fall within the 101 to 300 range. A smaller group of five investigations (2, 12, 16, 21, 22) fall within the category of over 100 participants. Furthermore, two investigations (5, 27) included individuals within the 501–800 range, while four research projects (11, 17, 20, 24) focus on subjects within the 301–500 interval. Three of the studies (3, 6, 15) had the potential to recruit more than 1,000 participants. According to this distribution, the majority of research employed medium-sized samples, which are often adequate for quantitative analysis but may limit wider generalizability. The reliability and validity of results are enhanced by larger samples, as demonstrated in studies 3, 6, and 15, indicating a growing shift to more reliable empirical methodologies.

The investigations encompass a wide array of disciplines within education (2, 4, 8); psychology (1, 7, 14, 18, 21, 24, 26, 27); engineering (3, 13, 22); teacher education (11); culinary arts (9); educational psychology (10, 25); communication (28); and students pursuing careers in pedagogy (17). Additionally, several studies involve various disciplinary fields simultaneously (5, 6, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23). One study involves students classified as at risk (20), while another study does not specify the educational domain (15). EF development differs significantly across HE disciplines. Research in education usually employs applied approaches connecting EF to pedagogy, lesson planning, self-regulated learning, and interventions aiming to improve academic performance. In psychology, the field in which EF is mainly studied, literature focuses on the main EF components: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory, and how these relate to mental health, adjustment, and academic performance. Furthermore, EF is demonstrated in engineering by innovative problem-solving, conceptual thinking, and creative design, all linked to an immense amount of preparation, perseverance, and flexibility. Studies in communication: language and literacy, often investigates how EF facilitates the processing of information, interpersonal relations, and communicating ideas. Certain disciplines, such as culinary arts, are under-researched. However, the article included in this study reflects that EF development is crucial to follow instructions, perform calculations, analyse loads of information, and understand content, among other aspects. It is noted that the interdisciplinary focus highlights the complexity and interconnectedness of educational research, emphasising the potential for insights and collaboration across disciplines to address educational challenges.

Figure 4 depicts the topics outlined in the 28 included articles, linked to EF abilities among HE students.

EF, as an overarching construct, is referenced in 15 articles, while academic achievement/performance is linked to EF in 14 articles. Furthermore, nine studies focus on working memory and four studies on cognitive flexibility. Moreover, three articles, respectively, refer to metacognition, cognitive control, and motivation. Two articles examine EF in relation to combinations of self-regulated learning, technological anxiety, self-efficacy, animal interaction, and teacher perception. Finally, the following concepts appear once: authentic learning, at risk students, academic procrastination, coping, experiential learning, flipped classroom, fluid intelligence, mobile phone usage, music, quality of life, social cognition, task performance, integration activities, and empathy.

Numerous studies have advocated for developing efficient educational settings (1, 3), such as flipped classrooms (3) or enhancing instructional design, to promote student performance. Additional research has proposed implementing intervention programmes (10, 13, 14, 18) or assisting students facing cognitive or EF challenges (3, 15, 19, 20). According to the findings, identifying a student’s thinking style, flexibility, and self-efficacy serves as the foundation for creating an efficient learning atmosphere. A flipped classroom setting showed the greatest benefits for lower achieving students, whereas interventions might need to be modified for higher performing students. It is recommended that pedagogical approaches be adjusted to target cognitive flexibility (3), e.g., shift to a flipped classroom approach by creating customised lesson plans to cater for student needs and working memory (9), e.g., enhance students’ memory by breaking up content into smaller parts, provide numerous quizzes, and assigning many practice exercises on a specific topic to improve academic success. The assessment of EFs among students in HE has been suggested to promote academic achievement (15). Approaches focus on enhancing cognitive functions to produce better learning outcomes are acknowledged (2, 4, 17, 27). Studies have highlighted the positive impact of animal interaction on cognition (21), particularly among at-risk students (20). Motivation is recognised as an influential element in students’ academic success (7, 19, 24). Two research studies (25, 28) find that strengthening teachers’ EFs lead to enhanced teaching efficacy and improved academic pedagogical skills.

Academic achievement has consistently been associated with various intellectual and affective elements, including intelligence, motivation, self-efficacy, strategic behaviour, utilisation of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, resilience, and self-regulation, among other variables (Amzil, 2022). Pearsons correlation analysis was used to investigate these connections and regression analysis was applied to predict the potential of EF on GPA (Amzil, 2022). The research interest evident from the included studies in this review shows that it is primarily directed towards the academic performance of HE students, with a specific focus on the connection between EF and academic achievement. Of the scholarly articles, 14 explore this subject matter (2, 4, 5, 8, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27). The direct association between EF and academic achievement implies that enhanced EFs are associated with improved academic success. On the other hand, the indirect relationship indicates that EF can impact academic success by affecting other psychological factors such as self-efficacy (1, 3, 19) and motivation (7, 19, 24). Article 19, specifically, delves into the connection between EFs and academic performance within the context of distance education. The article suggests that EFs not only exert a direct influence on academic success but also produce indirect consequences through variables such as self-efficacy, which pertains to one’s confidence in one’s abilities, and intrinsic motivation, which refers to the internal drive to acquire knowledge (Harel-Gadassi, 2022).

In addition, WM, a component of EF, is essential for academic achievement since it deals with the capacity to retain and manage information in the mind while completing activities like comprehension and problem-solving (Amzil, 2022). Various articles (4, 9, 14, 24) underscore the significance of EF, particularly WM, in influencing academic success. They contend that those who fail academically are more likely to have inadequate EF abilities, such as poor WM and trouble with cognitive regulation. Articles (2, 10, 14, 17, 20) concentrate on enhancing cognitive skills like WM, EFs, and CF to improve academic performance.

Furthermore, the connections between academic success and CF are explored in articles (1, 3, 6). They emphasise the relevance of CF across various learning situations, such as flipped classrooms and online social networks, and highlight it as a strong predictor of academic success. CF allows students to adapt to changing circumstances, correct mistakes, and seize opportunities (Diamond, 2013), enabling them to choose effective learning techniques and problem-solving approaches in education (Durak, 2023). CF can assist students in efficiently navigating complex topics and varied opinions in online social networks, and better connect with learning content and use it in interactive activities in flipped classrooms (Wang and Jou, 2023).

Two studies report on teacher perceptions (2, 25) to impact HE students’ academic achievement. Teachers play a crucial role in shaping the educational setting and enhancing students’ achievements through various means, such as imparting subject knowledge, guiding the learning process, and offering academic assistance (Looney et al., 2023). To increase teaching efficacy and deepen the relationships between teachers and students, article 2 emphasises the need for teacher preparation programmes, improving teachers’ social cognition and EFs, an indicator of effective pedagogy. In addition, effective teachers can comprehend the ideas and intentions of students and perceive and react to students’ emotions, which helps them become more cognizant of their needs and viewpoints.

In article 25, teachers reveal factors impacting HE students learning, such as the relationship between the teacher and students, understanding each other, sharing views, and collaboration between them to achieve a common goal. The study reveals that when teachers possess strong EF skills, they can incorporate student feedback, evaluate their own teaching methods, and modify their approaches to accommodate a variety of student needs (Correia and Navarrete, 2017). This study indicates that students should be aware of the interactions with their teacher to ensure effective learning takes place.

Two articles (8, 12) discuss the need for flexible educational systems to meet diverse student needs and promote metacognition regarding technology use, with varying implications based on their research findings. Article 8 suggests strategies to enhance metacognitive awareness and reduce technology-related anxiety; Article 8 suggests strategies to enhance metacognitive awareness and reduce technology-related anxiety; developing students’ EF, self-regulated learning, and technological cognition, which may assist in minimising the poor academic impacts of technology overuse in HE (Rosen et al., 2018). The authors reported that regular cellphone use, and poorer digital cognitive ability were observed in students with lower EF, which resulted in lower academic results and reduced study concentration. Article 12 advocates that students’ WM capacity influences their ability to learn within technological environments, pointing to the necessity of flexible multimedia systems that offer specific guidance to lessen cognitive strain and improve learning outcomes in HE settings (Çebi and Güyer, 2022).

Three articles (7, 19, 24) delve into the correlation between motivation and academic success, the significance of cognitive elements, and the pivotal role of self-motivation in education. While each article addresses EFs and motivation, they give preference to distinct variables within these frameworks. Article 7 studies the interplay between explicit and implicit motivation alongside WM capacity. Empirical evidence in the study highlights that WM capacity controls the interaction between implicit- and explicit motivation, which is essential for academic performance. With higher WM capacity, students are more equipped to combine their academic goals (explicit) and motivation desires (implicit) resulting in organised, focused, and goal-directed behaviours. In contrast, lower WM capacity leads to a decline in self-control and academic achievement. Article 19 emphasises the intermediary role of EFs through self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, especially in online education. According to the study, EF has a direct correlation with academic success in distant learning and an indirect correlation with self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Consequently, greater self-efficacy increases students’ intrinsic motivation to study. This is especially relevant for students who have greater EFs: planning, focused, organised, goal-directed, and self-regulated. Lower EF, on the other hand, exhibits less intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy, which leaves students more susceptible to failure (Harel-Gadassi, 2022). Article 24 underscores self-reported deficiencies in executive functioning and issues with self-motivation as indicators of academic achievement. In essence, these articles concur that motivation influences academic performance.

Fluid intelligence is a core cognitive ability involving the use of abstract reasoning to address non-traditional problems, essential for academic success (Niazi and Adil, 2021). Previous research establishes that fluid intelligence predicts WM (Smolen and Chuderski, 2015). Two articles (5, 14) examine the gender disparities in WM, fluid intelligence, and academic achievement. These articles suggest that gender moderates the relationship between cognitive aspects and academic success, resulting in different outcomes for males and females. It is reported that gender differences in cognition are context dependent. Research conducted in article 5 reports that girls had higher levels of WM and academic achievement and a stronger association between fluid intelligence and academic success than boys (Niazi and Adil, 2021). The results of the studies are consistent with research showing that female students frequently demonstrate higher levels of autonomy and mental awareness, which could enhance the advantages of cognitive abilities like WM and reasoning skills.

The studies listed in Table 2 reflect a wide range of limitations identified by the authors. These limitations relate to sample demographics, methodological constraints, and potential biases. Some studies mention limitations related to the representativeness of the sample (2, 14, 28) where the sample did not accurately represent the entire population studied. Other studies highlight methodological limitations (1, 2, 14, 10, 11, 19, 27), such as the absence of experimental manipulation or the reliance on self-report measures. These limitations demonstrate that most of the existing research is derived from self-reported information and convenience samples, which could impact the study’s reliability and generalizability. Limitations were not pointed out in four studies (3, 4, 5, 24). The insufficient awareness of limitations indicates that this field of research lacks critical reflection in several studies.

A notable study conducted by Dias et al. (2022) identifies a gap in research where the majority of research on EF interventions addresses young children and adolescents (Diamond and Ling, 2016) and a lack of studies in adults. Dias et al. (2022) aim to assess the effectiveness of an EF intervention programme on the academic learning of university students to alleviate difficulties related to EF. Their findings suggest that integrating interventions aimed at EF in the HE setting can yield diverse advantages for students, such as enhanced conduct and written language processing, increased attention, hyperactive behaviours, and enhanced reading comprehension skills crucial for academic achievement (Dias et al., 2022). Furthermore, two studies (10, 13) propose implementing interventions related to EF skills among students to promote academic success. Although there are some areas where the articles overlap, each one offers unique recommendations for interventions or approaches that are suited to distinct facets of education. Examples of these include cognitive training (article 2), flipped classrooms (article 3), coping mechanisms (article 13), and programmes that involve animal interaction (articles 20, 21). When creating interventions to assist student performance, various articles (5, 11, 13, 19) emphasise the significance of taking individual differences, such as gender, EF levels, and cognitive abilities, into account.

The data derived from the studies consistently demonstrate that EFs are crucial for academic success in HE, significantly impacting students’ achievement. In addition, the studies report on the correlation between EF elements and academic success and although there are strong links across academic success and EF skills, the study’s non-experimental design restricts the ability to draw conclusions about causality. The articles discuss strategies for improving academic performance, including individual focus, targeting different areas of EF, and multiple interventions, with various concepts contributing to positive or negative effects. Academic success results in students adapting to the HE demands of flexibility, efficient time management, problem-solving, multitasking, attention and behaviour control, memory use, success management, and self-regulated learning; all linked to the three EF categories: IC, CF, and WM. EFs are the fundamental building blocks of self-regulated learning (Pinochet-Quiroz et al., 2022); a requirement to function well in HE.

A lack of development in the latter causes EF deficits, probably resulting in academic failure. HE institutions need to understand students’ challenges and EF abilities to ensure they employ suitable intervention strategies to enhance their chances of academic success. Low EFs are linked to poor academic achievement (Ramos-Galarza et al., 2019), which puts EF assessment in context as a useful tool for identifying students who may have learning difficulties and for institutions to understand the reasons behind them (Knouse et al., 2014). Since the prefrontal brain regions continue to develop throughout early adulthood, the research recognises that EFs remain flexible and may be enhanced and maintained (Dias et al., 2022) in HE. The articles reveal that WM is a key component in learning since it entails the cognitive space required for planning and recalling information. However, WM is characterised as constrained and susceptible to overload, particularly from too much information or interruptions (La Lopa and Hollich, 2014). In contrast, the authors state that the relationship between working memory and academic success can be mediated by fluid intelligence.

These studies address the impact of EF on HE students’ behaviour, academic performance, and autonomous learning, especially in the areas of neuroscience and educational efficiency, making substantial, unique additions to existing research (Dias et al., 2022; Pinochet-Quiroz et al., 2022; Ramos-Galarza et al., 2019).

The evaluated research studies demonstrate diverse methods of measuring, mainly self-report scales, assessing challenges in daily life and performance-based assessments measuring cognitive skills through controlled activities (Follmer, 2021). The restricted connection between these two assessment tools is noteworthy, indicating that they represent separate components of EF (Manuhuwa et al., 2024). The authors assert that integrating self-reported and performance-based EF assessments could provide valuable insights into academic achievement. Research continuously shows that self-report assessments of EF and performance-based ratings do not significantly correlate, resulting in poor accuracy (Manuhuwa et al., 2024). The validity and main benefit and limitation of performance-based and self-report measures are highlighted in Table 5.

Ultimately, the studies show that relationships between constructs can have positive or negative effects. Some articles investigate the EF-related constructs as dependent and independent variables, and others were tested as moderators.

The publications included in this scoping review revealed certain gaps. Biographical disparities, such as gender differences, are not continually considered when measuring EF. The dominance of the northern hemisphere studies, particularly from the United States and parts of Europe, likely reflects both systematic and structural factors. First, major academic databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, and EbscoHOST, which we use as our sources, tend to index journals from institutions with high publication output, which are disproportionately located in the global north. Second, research findings and infrastructure in these regions often make large-scale, publishable EF studies more feasible. However, the lack of southern hemisphere representation is a significant gap, and it raises concerns about the global generalisability of findings and even the cultural validity of EF measures. One of the review’s key implications is an urgent need to encourage and amplify context-specific EF research in underrepresented regions, including Africa, Latin America and parts of Asia.

Many of the interventions currently in use, such as computerised cognitive training or flipped classrooms, are often developed in Western academic settings. While this may show efficacy in this context, the impact elsewhere depends heavily on how well they align with the local educational culture, language practices, technology access, and student needs. Ensuring contextual appropriateness means engaging with local educators, adapting intervention materials linguistically and culturally, and evaluating outcomes within the specific socio-cultural environment. We also need collaborative research methods, particularly participatory approaches that involve stakeholders from diverse regions in both the design and implementation of the phases, because it is important that, as researchers, we must acknowledge that EF is not a ‘one size fits all’ construct. Its expression and development can be deeply shaped by cultural expectations, classroom dynamics, and even the role of the teacher-student relationship.

Implement sustained inclusive interventions, promote interdisciplinary collaboration and broaden research design across various types. To strengthen EF means equipping students with the required skills they need to excel by improving their ability to organise, prioritise, control mental load, and adjust to challenging situations in everyday life and in their studies. Finally, this review emphasises that EF elements like WM, IC, and CF are associated with academic achievement.

The theoretical implications of EF are insightful incorporating a wide range of fields, including psychology, learning, and cognition. This scoping review was influenced by theoretical views on EF as a collection of mental functions to regulate thoughts, emotions, and behaviour (Diamond, 2013; Miyake et al., 2000). The literature highlights some important theoretical implications, especially the connection between EF, self-regulated learning, and academic performance. The core EF components such as IC help students maintain focus in online studying, while WM and CF allow them to adjust to challenging assessments.

Research emphasises the importance of EF for academic success, challenge preexisting theories, highlight causal relations, and provide new perspectives for improvement of EF. It is noteworthy that EF is even more important in today’s technological and independent-learning environments, where inadequacies surface as procrastination, poor self-control, and decreased success. The results of this review expand our knowledge of EF by presenting it as the complex control system responsible for planning, organising, goal setting, and self-regulation (Manuhuwa et al., 2024) among many others. Prospective educational legislation and guidelines should acknowledge EF as a fundamental competency that influences student achievement, engagement, and ability for continuous growth, rather than just as a psychological term.

The little overlap between the two kinds of measurements is a significant conceptual and practical challenge. Performance-based measurements in controlled laboratory environments assess hidden cognitive capacities while self-reports record achievement of objectives or behavioural expression in everyday, informal situations (Manuhuwa et al., 2024). For this reason, focused efforts to improve EF may be an important part of institutions to retain students. To create a holistic view, subsequent theoretical studies should develop a framework that incorporates performance-based and self-report measurements to assess undergraduate students’ EF skills. Consequently, these insights will enhance learning and teaching approaches, student support, and guidelines within HE.

Research highlights the practical implications and importance of understanding the relationship between self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and academic achievement in diverse HE settings for effective interventions and support structures. It is recommended that HE institutions employ a holistic approach to promote EFs and not focus on enhancing a single skill. The process of developing several EF skills will probably require a longer timeframe to produce advantages compared to focusing on enhancing a single skill. The former mentioned method proves to be more effective. For HE institutions, the vast amount of research on EF, namely WM and self-regulation, offers broad, practical implications. The implications focus on identifying students who are at risk, revising teaching strategies to lessen mental strain, and creating focused intervention programmes such as the pFex-Academics to enhance students’ EFs (Dias et al., 2022).

Instead of presuming students have sufficient self-regulation and EF abilities when they first enrol, institutions should take a proactive, evidence-based strategy regarding EF by implementing self-report evaluations to identify at-risk students (Manuhuwa et al., 2024). Teaching students to establish achievable goals and creating short tasks based on frequent due dates and lecturer input are proven methods to assist students who encounter EF difficulties like initiation, time management, and organisation (Rabin et al., 2011). Moreover, enhancing intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy are valuable motivational components of support to students with low EF abilities, especially in distance learning (Harel-Gadassi, 2022).

Another practical implication refers to the use of technology. Lecturers should consider using AI chatbots to serve as digital assistants and cognitive support tools to decrease cognitive strain, and improving critical thinking and CF (Pergantis et al., 2025). However, institutions should provide guidance and assistance to promote the ethical and responsible use of artificial intelligence (AI) to reduce plagiarism, falsification, and algorithmic information.

In education, practical implications focus on cognitive development, instructional design, creating efficient learning environments, and individual differences to enhance academic achievement and student success. These practical implications guide lecturers and policymakers in improving teaching and learning in demanding HE contexts, ensuring evidence-based institutions and effective policies for student success. Focusing on inclusive and varied methods of instruction will ensure that students’ cognitive and socioeconomic requirements are met. Finally, by drawing on interdisciplinary knowledge and expertise from different fields: psychology, education, and neurology, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of educational issues and develop innovative solutions to improve EF, a requirement to function well in academia and life in general.