Sports fandom has long been recognized as a psychologically meaningful form of group affiliation. Although its historical roots can be traced back to ancient Olympic spectatorship (Lochbaum et al., 2024), contemporary perspectives conceptualize fandom primarily as a form of psychological commitment shaped by emotional, cognitive, and social investment in a team (Borland and MacDonald, 2003). Fan commitment is not a unitary construct; rather, it spans a continuum ranging from casual, entertainment-oriented involvement to deep and enduring loyalty that persists even during periods of poor team performance (De Groot and Robinson, 2008). Recent scholarship further highlights that fandom is increasingly embedded within identity-based and relational processes. As the commercialization of sport reshapes fan–team relationships into more symbolic and transactional forms (Giulianotti, 2002), group identification and identity-related psychological mechanisms have become central to explaining why supporters experience their teams as extensions of the self (Newson et al., 2026; Neville et al., 2022).

Psychological commitment reflects this multifaceted form of loyalty and is typically conceptualized through several interrelated dimensions, including personal identity, affective commitment, calculative commitment, social obligation, and regional or territorial identification (Matsuoka, 2001). Personal identity captures the extent to which individuals incorporate their team into their self-concept (Mael and Ashforth, 1992), whereas affective commitment reflects emotional attachment and enjoyment derived from team affiliation, paralleling affective bonds described in organizational commitment theory (Meyer and Allen, 1991). Calculative commitment refers to the perceived costs associated with disengaging from the team (Iverson and Buttigieg, 1999), while social obligation highlights normative expectations arising from fan communities (Lee and Park, 1996). Regional or territorial identification represents loyalty grounded in geographic and cultural belonging (Laverie and Arnett, 2000; Williams et al., 1992). Collectively, these dimensions underscore that psychological commitment is not merely behavioral but deeply relational and emotionally grounded.

Given this relational nature, attachment theory offers a useful framework for understanding individual differences in psychological commitment to sports teams. Attachment styles represent relatively stable orientations toward emotionally significant bonds and influence how individuals regulate closeness, dependency, and emotional investment in relational contexts. When applied to sports fandom, attachment orientations may shape how supporters emotionally engage with their teams and how consistently commitment is maintained as part of their identity. Secure attachment is generally associated with balanced emotional involvement, psychological stability, and coherent identity integration, which may facilitate stable and enduring forms of fan commitment. In contrast, insecure attachment orientations are characterized by less adaptive emotion-regulation strategies. Anxious-ambivalent attachment is often linked to heightened emotional sensitivity and dependency, potentially giving rise to fluctuating or tension-laden forms of commitment, whereas avoidant attachment is marked by emotional distancing and discomfort with closeness, which may be associated with weaker affective and normative investment in the team.

Although a broad range of demographic, social, and contextual factors including age, gender, cultural identification, team performance, and marketing practices have been shown to influence levels of fan engagement (Allison and Knoester, 2021; Clarke et al., 2024; Mastromartino et al., 2022; Yim et al., 2021), relatively little research has examined attachment styles as individual-difference variables associated with psychological commitment in sports fandom. Addressing this gap may enrich existing models of fan behavior by providing a more person-centered understanding of why supporters differ in the depth, stability, and emotional quality of their commitment. Importantly, examining the association between attachment styles and psychological commitment does not imply a causal or developmental sequence; rather, it allows for a theoretically coherent account of how stable relational orientations co-occur with distinct patterns of fan engagement. Consistent with this perspective, the present study proposes that psychological commitment is differentially associated with attachment styles.

Attachment theory provides a foundational framework for understanding how individuals regulate emotions and respond to relational threats. Originating from early caregiver–infant interactions (Bowlby, 1979, 2018), attachment styles give rise to internal working models that guide affect regulation, threat appraisal, and interpersonal behavior across the lifespan. Secure attachment is generally associated with emotional regulation capacity, psychological resilience, and adaptive social functioning (Shen et al., 2021; Verschueren, 2020; Goldberg et al., 1995; Meyer et al., 1993; Moretti et al., 2001; Fraley and Roisman, 2019). In contrast, insecure attachment orientations particularly anxious-ambivalent and avoidant styles are characterized by less effective regulatory strategies, heightened sensitivity to perceived threat, and greater vulnerability to maladaptive emotional responses (Bartholomew and Horowitz, 1991; Wanser et al., 2019). A substantial body of empirical research has linked insecure attachment to mood instability, chronic anger, low self-esteem, and heightened emotional reactivity, all of which are factors associated with increased aggression risk (Kawamoto, 2020; Lecompte et al., 2014; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2011; Passanisi et al., 2015; Levental O. et al., 2021). These attachment-related differences in emotion regulation are particularly salient in high-arousal social contexts, where threats to identity, status, or belonging may intensify aggressive tendencies.

Aggression within sports fandom particularly in football reflects complex interactions among psychological, social, and cultural processes. Traditional models distinguish between physical, verbal, and hostile forms of aggression (Berkowitz, 1993; Buss and Perry, 1992), whereas more recent perspectives emphasize identity-based mechanisms operating within group contexts. Strong identification with a team may intensify in-group favoritism and out-group derogation, thereby increasing the likelihood of aggressive responses during intergroup encounters (End et al., 2002; Wann et al., 2001). Research on hooliganism further demonstrates how identity fusion, rivalry salience, and collective emotional arousal create social conditions under which aggressive behavior becomes normalized or even valorized (Giulianotti, 1999). Within the Turkish football context, fan aggression has been shaped by regional affiliations, socio-political dynamics, and cultural norms related to masculinity and honor (Doğan, 2010; Koca and Bulgu, 2015; Yıldız, 2014), while situational factors such as crowd density and policing practices further influence behavioral outcomes (Çoban, 2014).

Integrating attachment theory with aggression research offers a theoretically coherent explanation for individual differences in aggressive tendencies among football fans. Anxious-ambivalent attachment is associated with hyperactivation of the attachment system, heightened threat vigilance, and emotional volatility, which may co-occur with reactive forms of aggression when fan identity is perceived as challenged. Avoidant attachment, characterized by emotional distancing and deactivating regulatory strategies, may be associated with more instrumental, displaced, or norm-violating expressions of aggression, particularly in deindividuated crowd settings where social accountability is reduced (Zimbardo, 1969). In contrast, secure attachment is linked to empathy, impulse control, and effective emotion regulation, which may constrain the escalation of emotional arousal into aggressive behavior. These attachment-based patterns are also consistent with social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986), which posits that emotionally charged group affiliations amplify responses to perceived intergroup threat, particularly among individuals with pre-existing regulatory vulnerabilities.

Despite extensive research on fan aggression, attachment styles remain underexplored as individual-difference variables within sports psychology. Prior studies have predominantly focused on demographic characteristics, personality traits, or sociocultural conditions, leaving a theoretical gap regarding how internal relational schemas are associated with aggressive behavior in fan communities. Examining attachment styles in relation to aggression provides an important foundation for understanding why some supporters are more prone to aggressive responses than others, independent of situational triggers. Addressing this gap contributes to a more psychologically grounded account of fan aggression and informs the development of prevention strategies that extend beyond crowd control and situational management.

Research increasingly demonstrates that psychological commitment plays a central role in shaping how fans emotionally and behaviorally respond to competitive sport contexts. Higher levels of commitment have been associated with stronger anger reactions (Icekson et al., 2021), increased aggressive tendencies when belonging needs are heightened (Knapton et al., 2018), and elevated hostility under conditions of diminished self-confidence (Branscombe and Wann, 1992). Psychological commitment has also been shown to predict negative out-group emotions; for instance, Şirin and Şirin (2023) reported that commitment explains a substantial proportion of hostility toward rival teams. At the same time, engagement in team-related activities has been linked to enhanced psychological well-being and social connectedness (Cho et al., 2021; Yağız, 2020), while research on emotion regulation suggests that psychological commitment can simultaneously foster positive identification and heighten emotional sensitivity to competitive outcomes (Gross, 2015; Tamir M., 2022; Aytaç and Bilir, 2024). Indicating that psychological commitment can simultaneously foster positive identification and heighten emotional sensitivity to competitive outcomes. Identity-based processes further complicate this dynamic. Newson et al. (2026) demonstrated that club representation within national contexts strengthens identity fusion, intensifying in-group loyalty and shaping out-group attitudes in ways that may either constrain or escalate aggressive responses depending on contextual and individual factors.

Attachment theory provides a theoretically grounded explanation for why psychological commitment does not translate into aggressive behavior uniformly across individuals. Attachment orientations, shaped through early caregiver–child interactions (Bowlby, 1982; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2019; Santona et al., 2020), influence emotion regulation strategies, relational expectations, and coping patterns throughout adulthood (Besharat and Khajavi, 2013). In fan contexts, secure attachment is typically associated with emotional stability, reflective regulation, and adaptive coping, whereas insecure attachment orientations particularly anxious and avoidant patterns are characterized by heightened emotional reactivity, increased threat sensitivity, or emotional disengagement (Tamir I., 2022; Rees et al., 2023). These regulatory differences suggest that attachment styles are likely to shape how strongly psychological commitment is linked to aggressive behavior under conditions of heightened emotional investment (Tamir M., 2022).

From this perspective, attachment styles are best conceptualized as moderators that condition the strength and functional expression of the commitment–aggression association, rather than as intermediary mechanisms that transmit causal effects. Secure attachment may attenuate the likelihood that strong psychological commitment escalates into aggression by supporting emotional control, perspective-taking, and self-regulation. In contrast, insecure attachment orientations may heighten vulnerability to aggressive responses among highly committed fans by limiting effective regulation in the face of identity threat or competitive tension. Importantly, this moderation-based framework avoids assumptions about temporal precedence or developmental causality and is therefore more consistent with the cross-sectional design of the present study.

These attachment-based processes unfold within broader social and cultural systems that further shape fan behavior. Theoretical perspectives such as Social Identity Theory, the Elaborated Social Identity Model, and deindividuation theory emphasize how strong in-group identification, crowd dynamics, and perceived anonymity amplify emotional arousal and aggressive tendencies in group settings (Drury and Reicher, 1999; Tajfel and Turner, 1986; Zimbardo, 1969). Within such contexts, attachment styles function as individual-difference factors that influence how highly committed fans respond to identity threat and competitive pressure. Specifically, secure attachment may serve as a regulatory buffer, whereas insecure attachment styles condition the manner in which psychological commitment is expressed under emotionally charged circumstances.

The research model of the present study examines the relationships among fans’ psychological commitment, aggression, and attachment styles within a correlational research design. Correlational designs are widely used in quantitative research to investigate the strength and direction of associations among variables without implying causal sequencing (Karasar, 2023). In this framework, psychological commitment is conceptualized as a key predictor of aggressive tendencies among football fans, while attachment styles are positioned as moderating variables that condition the strength and direction of this relationship.

Rather than assuming a causal or developmental sequence in which psychological commitment gives rise to attachment styles, the present model treats attachment orientations as relatively stable relational dispositions that shape how individuals regulate emotions and respond to identity-related threats. Accordingly, attachment styles are expected to influence when, for whom, and under what conditions psychological commitment translates into aggressive behavior. Specifically, secure attachment is expected to buffer the association between commitment and aggression, whereas insecure attachment styles particularly anxious-ambivalent and avoidant attachment are expected to amplify this association under conditions of heightened emotional investment and perceived group threat. Given that all variables were measured at a single time point, a moderation-based analytical framework was deemed conceptually and methodologically more appropriate than a mediation approach. This model allows for the examination of interaction effects between psychological commitment and attachment styles without imposing assumptions about temporal precedence or causal direction. The proposed research model is illustrated in Figure 1.

The sample consisted of 561 adults who met a set of predefined inclusion criteria designed to identify individuals with long-term and stable fan identities. Demographic information, including age, gender, and team affiliation, is presented in Table 1. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 45 years (M = 22.48, SD = 3.57). For descriptive clarity, age was additionally grouped into four categories (18–25, 26–35, 36–45, and 45+), with the largest proportion of participants falling within the 18–25 and 26–35 age ranges. To qualify for participation, individuals were required to: (a) be 18 years of age or older; (b) self-identify, via an initial screening question, as loyal football fans for at least the past 10 years; (c) actively engage in fandom behaviors such as watching matches, following team-related news, or participating in in-person or online supporter interactions; (d) report no neurological or psychiatric condition that would impede completion of the assessment; and (e) voluntarily agree to participate. These criteria ensured that the sample comprised individuals whose fan identity was sufficiently established to align with the aims of the study. Because loyal football fans do not congregate within a single structured setting and no formal sampling frame exists for this population, a field-based convenience sampling strategy was employed. This approach is commonly recommended for accessing hard-to-reach populations lacking centralized registries or unified gathering points (Bonevski et al., 2014). Data were collected through face-to-face recruitment in natural supporter environments where football fans typically interact. Researchers visited supporter associations, areas surrounding stadiums prior to matches, cafés functioning as informal gathering spaces, and public social settings known for football-related discussions.

This field-based recruitment strategy offered two methodological advantages. First, it enhanced ecological validity by engaging participants within their natural social context. Second, it allowed for on site verification of inclusion criteria, ensuring that only individuals who clearly met the definition of long-term loyal fans were included. Convenience sampling was selected for its practicality and efficiency in contexts where accessibility constraints and the absence of a sampling frame render probabilistic sampling methods infeasible (Etikan et al., 2016).

To ensure that the collected data were statistically sufficient for the planned analyses, both a priori and post-hoc power analyses were conducted. An a priori power analysis was performed using GPower 3.1.9.7 software prior to data collection to determine the minimum required sample size for the planned moderation analyses. The analysis was based on a multiple linear regression framework with an alpha level of 0.05, statistical power of 0.80, and a medium effect size (f² = 0.15), indicating that a minimum of 55 participants would be sufficient. Following data collection, a post-hoc power analysis was conducted to further evaluate the adequacy of the sample size for moderation analyses involving different attachment styles. Psychological commitment was specified as the independent variable, aggression as the dependent variable, and secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent attachment styles were separately modeled as moderators. The results indicated that a minimum of 73 participants was required for secure attachment (f² = 0.11), 27 for avoidant attachment (f² = 0.32), and 32 for anxious-ambivalent attachment (f² = 0.27). With a total sample of 561 participants, the study substantially exceeded these minimum requirements, confirming the robustness and statistical adequacy of the sample for the intended moderation analyses.

The data collection process was conducted in three stages. In the first stage, permission to use the instruments intended for the study was obtained via email from their original developers or adaptors. In the second stage, ethical approval confirming the study’s adherence to ethical standards was obtained from the Ethics Committee for Social and Human Sciences. In the third and final stage, as explained above, the instruments were administered to the participants face-to-face by the researchers. Prior to the data collection process, participants were informed about the purpose of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, and the procedures for completing the survey. Each participant was asked to complete a consent form. The data collection process took approximately 15 min per participant.

Prior to data analysis, the data were assessed for adherence to parametric assumptions. Specifically, skewness and kurtosis values were examined to evaluate the normality of the distributions (Table 2). All variables demonstrated skewness and kurtosis values within conservative thresholds (±1.5), well below commonly accepted limits for normality (Kline, 2018), indicating no substantial deviations from normality. Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships among the study variables. To test the moderating role of attachment styles in the relationship between psychological commitment (independent variable) and aggression (dependent variable), simple moderation analyses were performed using PROCESS Macro version 4.1 (Model 1) for SPSS 25.0, based on Hayes’ bootstrap method. All confidence intervals were estimated using 5,000 bootstrap samples. Descriptive statistics, including minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis values, were computed using SPSS 25.0.

Several limitations of the present study should be acknowledged. First, the data were collected from a single city and included fans of teams that were randomly accessible within this context, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other regions or cultural settings. Second, all variables were measured at a single time point, which precludes causal inferences and leaves the temporal ordering among psychological commitment, attachment styles, and aggression unresolved. Accordingly, the findings should be interpreted as reflecting associations and conditional relationships rather than directional or developmental effects. In addition, all measures were obtained via self-report questionnaires administered at the same time point, raising the possibility of social desirability bias and common method variance, which may have inflated the observed associations among variables. Although age, gender, and team allegiance were statistically controlled in the moderation analyses, other potentially relevant individual and contextual factors such as personality traits, impulsivity, emotion regulation strategies, alcohol use, and socioeconomic background were not included. These variables may jointly influence attachment orientations, psychological commitment, and aggressive tendencies, and their omission may limit the precision of the observed effects. Finally, although the moderation framework adopted in this study is theoretically grounded in attachment theory and prior research on emotion regulation and identity-related processes, the cross-sectional design restricts conclusions regarding temporal dynamics. Future research employing longitudinal, experimental, or cross-lagged designs is needed to examine how attachment orientations interact with psychological commitment over time and to clarify the conditions under which commitment is more or less likely to translate into aggressive behavior. Expanding future studies to include more diverse samples and additional psychological and situational covariates would further strengthen the external validity and theoretical refinement of this line of research.

The findings of the present study offer several theoretical and practical implications for managing aggression in football fandom. First, the results suggest that interventions aimed at reducing fan aggression may benefit from incorporating psychological perspectives that account for individual differences in attachment-related emotion regulation, rather than focusing exclusively on situational or punitive approaches. In this respect, collaboration between the Ministry of Youth and Sports in Türkiye, mental health professionals, and sports organizations may facilitate the development of psychoeducational programs that enhance emotion regulation skills, self-awareness, and adaptive coping strategies among football supporters. Importantly, the present findings do not imply that attachment styles themselves should be directly targeted for change. Instead, secure attachment emerged as a protective regulatory orientation that buffers the expression of aggression among highly committed fans. Accordingly, intervention efforts may focus on strengthening functional capacities associated with attachment security such as emotional regulation, impulse control, empathy, and perspective-taking particularly in high-arousal and identity-threatening fan contexts. Group-based psychoeducation or counseling programs delivered to fans who have exhibited aggressive behavior may help reduce hostility by addressing these regulatory processes rather than attempting to alter underlying attachment orientations. At the institutional level, coordinated initiatives involving the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the Turkish Football Federation, and public health boards could support community-based projects that promote prosocial fan engagement and reduce intergroup hostility. Rather than targeting only sanctioned or penalized fans, inclusive social responsibility programs that bring together supporters from different teams may foster shared norms, reduce out-group demonization, and weaken the escalation of identity-based aggression. Such initiatives align with the present findings by addressing the social and emotional contexts in which aggression is most likely to emerge. For practitioners working in applied sport psychology, the results highlight the importance of considering fans’ psychological commitment and attachment-related regulatory tendencies when designing preventive strategies. Psychological counselors and sport psychologists may collaborate with athletes, clubs, and supporter groups to model adaptive responses to provocation, rivalry, and perceived injustice, thereby promoting healthier forms of identification and emotional expression within football culture. Finally, the study offers implications for future research. Scholars are encouraged to extend this line of inquiry by examining fan psychological commitment in relation to additional variables such as belongingness, trust, emotion regulation strategies, and coping styles, using longitudinal or experimental designs. Such approaches would allow for a more precise understanding of how individual differences interact with social and contextual factors to shape aggressive behavior in sports fandom.