The global aging population presents significant challenges to public health, as older adults often face cognitive decline, increased risks of anxiety and depression, and social isolation, negatively impacting their quality of life and independence (Valdés-Badilla et al., 2021). Therefore, identifying effective interventions to promote mental health and cognitive resilience is crucial. While physical exercise is widely recognized for mitigating cognitive decline and enhancing psychological well-being, recent research suggests that martial arts offer a promising, multifaceted approach by combining physical activity with cognitive stimulation and social engagement (Guo et al., 2016; Sullivan et al., 2024a; Sullivan et al., 2024b). However, the neural, psychosocial, and embodied mechanisms through which this works are not sufficiently consolidated. Accordingly, this review critically considers evidence on the effects of martial arts on neuroplasticity, cognitive functioning, and psychosocial adaptation in old age from the perspectives of neuroscience, embodied cognition technologies, and gerontology.

Martial arts, including Olympic sports like boxing, judo, karate, and traditional practices like Tai Chi, combine aerobic exercise, complex motor skills, cognitive challenges, controlled breathing, and social interaction (Gomboev et al., 2023). This comprehensive approach targets physical fitness, brain health, emotional regulation, and social connections, addressing the multifaceted nature of healthy aging. From a neurobiological perspective, martial arts training affects mental health by modulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), essential for synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis (Hola et al., 2024). BDNF levels decline with age, contributing to memory and cognitive decline. However, martial arts participation has been shown to increase BDNF levels, promoting neuroplasticity. Studies on older adults engaging in Judo and Tai Chi have demonstrated higher BDNF levels, improved cognitive performance, and structural brain changes, including increased gray matter in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Bu et al., 2010; Sungkarat et al., 2018).

Martial arts involve complex motor movements and cognitive functions, requiring practitioners to memorize sequences, anticipate actions, make rapid decisions, and sustain attention (Kotarska et al., 2019). These motor-cognitive demands engage neural circuits related to executive control, working memory, and attention, which decline with age. Neuroimaging studies show that regular practice increases cortical thickness and functional connectivity between regions responsible for cognitive flexibility and self-awareness (Lazar et al., 2005). These changes enhance multitasking, processing speed, and overall cognitive performance, essential for maintaining independence and quality of life in older adults (Liu et al., 2021). Motor sequencing, attentional switching, inhibition, and visuospatial processing were all more challenging in martial arts relative to traditional exercise activities such as walking or resistance training. Various studies have demonstrated that these types of cognitively challenging forms of exercise induce better enhancements in executive function and working memory than low-cognitive-load activities.

Beyond neurological benefits, martial arts improve psychological and social well-being. Hard martial arts, such as Karate, Taekwondo, and Judo, have been linked to reduced anxiety and depression, enhanced self-esteem, and greater life satisfaction (Valdés-Badilla et al., 2022a; Gastoł et al., 2024). These results can be biased by confounding factors, including baseline physical conditions in the study population. They may differ among culturally or ethnically diverse older adults engaged in different forms of martial arts. The communal environment of martial arts classes fosters social connectedness, alleviating loneliness in aging populations. Gender and regional differences in mental health outcomes are also a factor, since women and older adults from East Asian regions display different engagement patterns, motivational factors, or psychological responses to practicing martial arts than a Western cohort.

Group training provides meaningful social interactions, mutual encouragement, and shared accomplishments, which strengthen emotional resilience and motivation for continued physical activity (Wang et al., 2023). The structured progression in martial arts, such as belt advancement, boosts confidence and psychological well-being (Sullivan et al., 2024a; Sullivan et al., 2024b). Nonetheless, differences in neuroimaging procedures (fMRI pre-processing and ROI selection), together with the known issue of variability from serum BDNF assays, prevent direct comparison between studies. Current neurobiological data should therefore be interpreted carefully.

Based on embodied cognition theory, which posits that cognitive functions are firmly rooted in sensorimotor experience, martial arts offer a rich combination of movement flow, attention management, emotional, and intersubjective interactions. Such embodied practices drive neuroplastic change within motor, cognitive, and socio-emotional circuits, thereby providing a multilayered trajectory for successful aging. The virtues of martial arts can be examined through the framework of embodied cognition and neuroplastic adaptation. These theories imply an interdependence of motor and cognitive systems and that the neural architecture and emotional self-regulation are influenced by sensorimotor experiences. Using these systems together helps to understand why martial arts produce multidimensional benefits in mental health, as it incorporates elements of the cognitive, motor, and emotional types together. This review examines the neurobiological, psychological, social, and physical benefits of martial arts for aging individuals. We discuss training recommendations, literature limitations, and suggest future research directions to advance this field. Integrating insights from neuroscience, psychology, and gerontology, martial arts emerge as a holistic approach to healthy aging, offering significant potential to enhance mental health and quality of life for the aging global population.

This is a narrative review that attempts to consolidate existing knowledge across the neural, cognitive, and social system dimensions of martial arts as these relate to mental health in older adults. A systematic search was carried out in the databases of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar by using the terms: martial arts; Tai Chi; older adults; mental health; cognition; neuroplasticity; social support; BDNF. The search included studies from 2000 to 2024. Inclusion criteria: (1) peer-reviewed articles, (2) 55 years or older, (3) martial arts or Tai Chi as the intervention, and (4) mental health, cognition, neural mechanisms, and psychosocial well-being outcomes. Exclusion criteria: (1) non-peer-reviewed; (2) without mental or neural results; and (3) not related to martial arts interventions. Manual reference list screening was performed to supplement articles.

Martial arts cultivate strong social support networks, which are crucial for enhancing mental and emotional well-being. From a social neuroscience point of view, the underpinnings of social connection are allegedly associated with oxytocinergic modulation, activation in reward circuitry (ventral striatum, mPFC), and decreased amygdala reactivity. These mechanisms provide biobehavioral pathways by which social support promotes stress regulation and psychological resilience.

Training in group settings allows individuals to motivate one another, build trust, and work toward shared goals, creating a supportive environment that alleviates loneliness and stress, particularly among older adults or those facing social isolation (Oh et al., 2025). Partner exercises, group drills, and collective challenges strengthen social bonds and foster a sense of belonging. Social support can be categorized as structural support (size, density, and frequency of social networks) and functional support (perceived quality, emotional closeness, and instrumental help). These dimensions have different psychological and neurobiological implications and ought not to be treated as interchangeable. Yet supportive social contexts have been interpreted as exerting buffering effects on neurobiological responses to stress in several lines of evidence from neuroimaging studies, lending credibility to the biological plausibility of social support as a protective factor against poor mental health.

Martial arts provide significant mental health benefits by combining physical activity with mindfulness and discipline. Regular training reduces stress, anxiety, and depression by promoting endorphin release and encouraging focused breathing and movement. The structured routines and goal-oriented progression foster a sense of purpose and achievement, improving mood and emotional stability. Martial arts also enhance concentration, mental clarity, and cognitive resilience (Moore et al., 2020). To sort the level of evidence, we separated RCTs from longitudinal and cross-sectional studies due to their varying methodological rigor and capacity for causal inference.

In addition to individual benefits, martial arts create a supportive community environment that promotes social connection and belonging, essential for mental well-being. The focus on respect, self-control, and emotional regulation equips practitioners with coping skills for managing everyday challenges. These combined physical, cognitive, and social benefits make martial arts an integrated approach to improving and maintaining mental health across all age groups (Table 2).

Olympic combat sports (OCS) such as boxing, judo, karate, taekwondo, fencing, and wrestling offer extensive physical-functional health benefits by combining cardiovascular endurance, strength, flexibility, and coordination. These sports improve motor skills, cardiovascular health, bone density, and muscular endurance, reducing chronic disease risks and promoting long-term mobility and independence (Muñoz-Vásquez et al., 2023). OCS also enhances neuromuscular function, reaction time, and body awareness through complex, dynamic movements, which are crucial for injury prevention and daily activities. These physical and functional benefits foster a resilient body, supporting both athletic performance and overall health across age groups.

The influence of martial arts on the mental health of older adults is most appropriately understood in an integrated biopsychosocial framework that links neural, psychological, and social mechanisms (Willhite and Becht-buss, 2025) (Figure 3). Rather than evoking their effects through isolated physiological changes, martial arts interventions incorporate diverse, interacting pathways that collectively promote cognitive resilience to adversity, emotional stability, and social health. At the neural level, regular practice of martial arts enhances neuroplasticity, cortical connectivity, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression, all of which are important for memory consolidation, learning, and emotional regulation (Hola et al., 2024).

These neurobiological adaptations form a basis for improved executive function, attention, and self-regulation. This improved connectivity in prefrontal and hippocampal pathways promotes the neural substrates of decision making and emotional control, which are so frequently rendered deficient late. Psychologically, these neurological changes come to manifest themselves in terms of improved self-efficacy, improved mood control, and cognitive flexibility (Sridhar et al., 2023). The mastery-oriented structure of martial arts, progressive acquisitions of skills, goal setting, and feedback nurture intrinsic motivation and self-worth. The sense of achievement and self-discipline derived from regular training serves to ameliorate symptoms of anxiety and depression, thus promoting emotional resilience and mental balance (Ambroży et al., 2024). This psychological empowerment, in turn reinforces neural adaptation as neural potentiation comes to accompany sustained practice, which leads to less neural inhibition through stress. Socially, martial arts are beneficial in fostering institutional connectedness and mutual support, factors that insulate against loneliness and isolation, among the most potent risk factors for cognitive and emotional decline in the aged (Harwood-Gross et al., 2021).

Group training engenders empathy, cooperation, and social identity, and recruits the reward mechanism and oxytocin-mediated pathways associated with positive affect and stress release. The interaction of neural health and social connectedness congeals into a synergistic feedback loop in which social connectedness enhances group neural activity and vice versa (Kim and Sul, 2023). Collectively, all these interdependent factors imply that martial arts serve not merely as a form of exercise but as a multidimensional neuro psychosocial intervention. By simultaneously acting at the level of the brain, the mind, and the social environment, martial arts promote holistic well-being and could serve as an inexpensive and easily accessible method of mitigating cognitive and emotional deterioration in ageing.

Previous work has shown that formal physical activity interventions can have a beneficial impact on psychological and physiological parameters, including mood, emotional resilience, and neurochemical balance (Kanani et al., 2025). The integration of these findings within the current context is important in connecting psychosocial engagement through sports video game play to the wider theoretical framework associated with exercise and mental health benefits. This association provides evidence that engagement in the physical domain, whether through traditional exercise or more novel means such as sports video games, may have positive indirect effects on overall psychological well-being.

The 2024 Paris Olympics will feature six core OCS, each with its unique characteristics and rich history. Boxing, one of the oldest Olympic combat sports, has been part of the modern Olympic program since 1904, focusing on precise punches, footwork, and defensive maneuvers, emphasizing speed, power, and tactical skill (Walsh, 2008).

Judo, introduced in 1964, combines throwing and grappling techniques, using leverage and balance to subdue opponents. Karate made its Olympic debut in Tokyo 2020, blending physical agility, striking, and blocking. Taekwondo, an Olympic sport since 2000, is known for dynamic kicking techniques and fast-paced combat (Tokarski, 2012). Wrestling, one of the original Olympic sports, includes Greco-Roman and freestyle styles, both requiring exceptional strength, endurance, agility, and strategic thinking. These Olympic combat sports highlight a blend of tradition, athleticism, and mental strategy, making them key attractions of the Paris 2024 Games (Latyshev et al., 2020) (Figure 4).

Despite growing evidence supporting the cognitive and mental health benefits of martial arts for older adults, significant gaps in the literature limit the generalizability of findings and the mechanistic understanding of benefits. A significant limit to the literature is that no standardized protocols are used for interventions across studies (Sullivan et al., 2024a; Sullivan et al., 2024b). Variations in martial arts style, frequency, duration, and intensity in training make it difficult to compare outcomes of studies or determine optimal interventions for various age and health groups. In addition, few studies using randomized clinical trials and long-term follow-up have been conducted to study the sustainability of benefits found for these interventions outside of short-term trials (Moore et al., 2019).

Another area of study that remains sparse is the mechanistic understanding of neurological and biochemical processes associated with the psychological effects of martial arts. While some studies have shown increased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), increased neural connectivity, there is insufficient use of biomarkers, electrophysiological tools, and neuroimaging to support differences in mechanisms underlying the benefits of martial arts (Campanella et al., 2024; Lin et al., 2025). Also, gender differences and cultural factors are rarely explored, despite evidence that cultural relevance, social norms, and individual motivation may affect adherence and psychosocial outcomes.

Finally, there is a need for comparative studies of hard versus soft martial arts (Karate, Judo, Taekwondo) versus Tai Chi and Qigong, directed toward the efficacy of enhancing mental health effects, enhanced neural plasticity, and improved emotional regulation. The study of these gaps with interdisciplinary-based rigorous study designs will be crucial in establishing evidence-based guidelines for the efficacy of martial arts and in having these incorporated broadly into public health and aging-related strategies.

Despite this increasing literature on the cognitive and psychosocial benefits of martial arts for older adults, several methodological shortcomings limit the strength and transferability of these findings. First, a lot of neuroimaging (and biomarker) studies are based on small sample sizes, which reduces statistical power and increases the risk for false positive findings. The studies that investigate BDNF changes or functional connectivity in Tai Chi practitioners (Sungkarat et al., 2018), commonly use fewer than n = 30 participants, which prohibits conclusions about a greater part of the aging population. Moreover, much of the existing research has insufficient control groups in observational studies where individuals self-select into martial arts practice. This introduces the potential for confounding, including level of fitness at baseline, motivations, or cultural familiarity with martial arts (Knight, 2021).

While the positive effects of martial arts on mental health and cognitive function in older adults are well-supported, significant gaps remain in the research. A key limitation is the focus on short- to medium-term interventions (8–16 weeks), offering limited insight into the long-term sustainability of benefits. Future research should prioritize longitudinal studies with extended follow-up periods to assess whether improvements in cognition, mood, and overall mental health persist, increase, or diminish with continued practice or after cessation. Understanding these effects is essential for developing martial arts as a long-term therapeutic strategy for aging populations.

Moreover, longitudinal research could explore martial arts’ potential role in delaying or mitigating neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and dementia. Non-pharmacological interventions like martial arts may offer low-cost options for neuroprotection and symptom management. Investigating the biological mechanisms of martial arts’ cognitive benefits is crucial. Future studies should use neuroimaging and biomarker analyses, such as BDNF, brain connectivity, and neuroplasticity markers, to understand how martial arts impact brain structure and function.

Additionally, future research should examine psychological and social factors, such as stress reduction, social support, and emotional regulation, that may enhance mental health. Standardizing intervention protocols across martial arts styles and populations will improve comparability and reproducibility. Finally, understanding long-term adherence and engagement is essential, with future studies identifying barriers to sustained participation and developing strategies like community-based programs, remote training, or motivational support systems to improve retention. Addressing these gaps will strengthen the scientific foundation of martial arts interventions and maximize their potential for promoting healthy cognitive aging and psychological well-being.

Future endeavors could incorporate advanced technologies such as virtual reality martial art training, AI-driven movement feedback, and neurofeedback devices to track brain activity when engaging in physical activity in real time. This might help improve existing training protocols for effective impacts on performance, as well as possibly improve motivation and personalize the programs designed for different biophysical capabilities in older adults.

Martial arts provide a comprehensive approach to enhancing mental health and cognitive vitality in older adults. By integrating physical activity, cognitive stimulation, and social engagement, martial arts positively influence neural processes like neuroplasticity and BDNF expression, both crucial for cognitive function with age. Social connections built through martial arts help reduce loneliness and support emotional well-being. Research shows that martial arts training can reduce anxiety and stress, improve executive functions, and enhance quality of life for elderly populations. Both vigorous, dynamic hard martial arts and gentle, mindful soft martial arts like Tai Chi offer unique benefits, addressing physical, cognitive, and psychosocial challenges common in later life. Despite these promising findings, more rigorous studies are needed to clarify the benefits of different martial arts styles, refine training regimens, and assess long-term effects. Comparative and longitudinal research, alongside advanced neuroimaging, will be essential for designing tailored, evidence-based martial arts interventions for older adults. Incorporating martial arts into health promotion programs offers a valuable opportunity to improve mental health, cognitive resilience, and overall well-being, supporting healthier, more fulfilling aging.