Student satisfaction has long been conceptualized as analogous to customer satisfaction in consumer behavior research (Elliott and Healy, 2001; Brown and Mazzarol, 2009). Among various frameworks, the expectancy–performance disconfirmation theory (EDT) developed by Olshavsky and Miller (1972) and extended by Oliver (1980, 2010) remains one of the most influential explanations for how satisfaction forms. Oliver (2010) described satisfaction as a “fulfillment response,” a judgment that perceived performance provides a pleasurable level of fulfillment. This classic view emphasizes two core ideas: satisfaction is an evaluative attitude directed at a specific target, and it depends on the extent to which perceived performance meets or exceeds initial expectations (Oliver, 1980; Oliver and Burke, 1999).

EDT posits that satisfaction arises from comparing expectations with perceived performance: positive disconfirmation occurs when performance exceeds expectations, leading to satisfaction, while negative disconfirmation results when performance falls short (Spreng et al., 1996). The theory distinguishes key constructs such as expectations, perceived performance, perceived value, disconfirmation, and outcomes like loyalty and complaints (Zeithaml, 1988; Heidenreich et al., 2015). Research has explored both direct effects of expectations and performance (Anderson, 1973; Cardozo, 1965; Evangelidis and Van Osselaer, 2018) and the mediating role of disconfirmation as a distinct construct (Niedrich et al., 2005; Spreng and Page, 2003).

Beyond consumer contexts, EDT has been adapted to public services and citizen satisfaction (Van Ryzin, 2004, 2006, 2013). Its focus on internal cognitive comparisons—how expectations and perceived performance jointly shape satisfaction—has also been foundational for evaluating service quality and institutional effectiveness in higher education (Elliott and Shin, 2002).

Recent empirical work reaffirms EDT’s relevance across diverse university contexts. For example, Khan and Hemsley-Brown (2024) found that UK students’ satisfaction with tuition costs and institutional reputation depended strongly on expectation disconfirmation. Alzahrani and Seth (2021) showed that meeting expected information and service quality shaped British students’ satisfaction with emergency online learning during COVID-19. Similarly, Surya Bahadur et al. (2024) demonstrated among Indian and Nepalese business students that program quality and administrative services that exceeded expectations boosted satisfaction, while gaps in teacher quality did not. In Bangladesh, Umar and Hasan (2024) found that strong support services aligned with expectations enhanced satisfaction in engineering students.

Guided by this theoretical lens, the present study not only applies EDT but also integrates complementary frameworks to better capture the proposed mediation process. Specifically, self-determination theory (SDT) (Ryan and Deci, 2000) highlights competence as a core psychological need whose satisfaction directly contributes to positive affective evaluations such as satisfaction. This aligns with our conceptualization of “Perceived Competence Acquisition” as a mediator. Furthermore, the chain mediation perspective (Taylor et al., 2008; Hayes, 2013) emphasizes that causal mechanisms can unfold through multiple, sequential mediators, offering a theoretical basis for our hypothesis that competence acquisition influences satisfaction indirectly via enhanced perceptions of learning and campus life.

In this integrated framework, satisfaction is conceptualized as shaped by how well expectations are fulfilled across four dimensions: perceived goal attainment, perceived competence acquisition, curriculum and learning, and infrastructure and daily life. The model tests whether perceived goal attainment influences satisfaction both directly and indirectly through competence acquisition and these two experience-based mediators, responding to calls for a more nuanced understanding of how institutional factors and individual evaluations interact in Chinese higher education.

Student satisfaction is generally defined as students’ subjective evaluation of their learning experiences and the perceived value of the education they receive (Elliott and Shin, 2002; Douglas et al., 2006). In line with EDT, student satisfaction is shaped by the interaction between students’ initial expectations and their actual experiences within the university environment (Appleton-Knapp and Krentler, 2006; Alves and Raposo, 2007).

International research has established that student satisfaction is a multi-dimensional construct that encompasses various aspects of academic and campus life, including teaching quality, curriculum relevance, faculty–student interaction, support services, and campus facilities (Gruber et al., 2010; Soomro et al., 2020; Kanwar and Sanjeeva, 2022; Ikram and Kenayathulla, 2023; Dugenio-Nadela et al., 2023). For example, Douglas et al. (2006) developed a comprehensive student satisfaction model that includes dimensions such as course content, teaching methods, assessment, learning resources, and campus environment. Similarly, Letcher and Neves (2010) found that students’ perceptions of the academic experience, including faculty effectiveness and learning resources, significantly predict overall satisfaction.

In the Chinese context, studies have adapted these frameworks to local cultural and institutional settings. Zhang and Yue (2009) developed an evaluation system covering teaching content, student engagement, extracurricular activities, and living services. Li (2017) advanced this work by constructing a higher education satisfaction index model that integrates talent cultivation, perceived management, campus culture, perceived quality, and infrastructure support.

A recent synthesis by Gu and Lu (2023) reviewed 48 studies and identified seven major dimensions influencing Chinese students’ satisfaction: teaching quality, school reputation, campus environment, organizational management, logistical support (e.g., housing and dining), personal improvement (self-development), and financial aspects. Teaching quality, campus environment, administrative management, and logistical services were identified as the most critical factors. Despite this progress, prior research still focus on descriptive measurement rather than exploring how these factors interact or mediate one another (Zhang and Yue, 2009).

There is a clear need for more nuanced analyses that reveal the process mechanisms behind student satisfaction, aligned with international models that highlight multi-step or chain mediation pathways (Cardona and Bravo, 2012). By addressing this gap, the present study seeks to deepen understanding of how students’ expectations, perceived competence acquisition, and perceptions of curriculum and learning as well as infrastructure and daily life work together to shape satisfaction in the Chinese higher education system.

The relationship between students’ initial expectations and their satisfaction has long been a central focus in higher education research, largely inspired by classical customer satisfaction theory (Olshavsky and Miller, 1972; Oliver, 1980). When institutional performance meets or exceeds expectations, satisfaction tends to increase; when it falls short, dissatisfaction results (Spreng et al., 1996). While institutional quality may be objectively stable, students’ subjective expectations often play a decisive role in shaping satisfaction levels (Appleton-Knapp and Krentler, 2006). Studies have shown that unrealistically high expectations can lower satisfaction (Brown et al., 2008), whereas more realistic and attainable goals are linked to higher satisfaction in both Western and Chinese contexts (Zhang and Lin, 2014).

In response to these findings, recent studies have highlighted the need to measure not only expectations but also the extent to which students perceive their goals as being fulfilled through the educational process (Douglas et al., 2006; Alves and Raposo, 2007; Soomro et al., 2020; Gabrah et al., 2023; Maniriho, 2024). This construct, known as Perceived Goal Attainment, reflects students’ subjective judgment of how effectively the university’s educational activities contribute to their knowledge, skills, and personal development in line with their initial expectations (Elliott and Shin, 2002; Gruber et al., 2010). Research in various higher education settings has shown that when students believe their academic and personal goals are being met, they are more likely to report higher levels of overall satisfaction (Elliott and Shin, 2002; Douglas et al., 2006).

By bridging students’ expectations and the perceived effectiveness of educational experiences, perceived goal attainment plays a critical mediating role in explaining how satisfaction is formed (Letcher and Neves, 2010; Gruber et al., 2010). For instance, aligning students’ expectations with actual educational value—such as tuition fees or academic outcomes—can reduce the “expectation gap” and increase satisfaction (Khan and Hemsley-Brown, 2021). Beyond EDT, SDT (Ryan and Deci, 2000) suggests that attaining valued goals satisfies the basic psychological need for competence, thereby fostering intrinsic motivation, positive affect, and stronger commitment to the learning process. This dual-theoretical perspective indicates that goal attainment can enhance satisfaction both as a cognitive evaluation (meeting expectations) and as a psychological fulfillment (meeting needs), and that this process may extend to students’ perceptions of curriculum and learning as well as infrastructure and daily life.

In higher education research, Perceived Competence Acquisition refers to students’ subjective evaluation of the extent to which they believe they have developed relevant knowledge, skills, and capacities during their university experience (Komarraju et al., 2010; Cazan and Schiopca, 2014; Bustos-Usta et al., 2024). This concept builds on the view that fulfilling students’ higher-order needs for self-development and mastery is a key driver of satisfaction and positive outcomes (Maslow, 1954; Ryan and Deci, 2000). According to SDT, the need for competence is an essential psychological driver that motivates students to engage with learning environments and shapes their subsequent satisfaction and well-being (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Fryer and Elliot, 2008).

From a goal-setting perspective, goal attainment provides feedback signaling successful task performance and mastery development (Locke and Latham, 2002). When students perceive that they have met or exceeded their academic and personal development goals, they infer that they have acquired or strengthened relevant competencies (Bandura, 1997). Social cognitive theory similarly posits that achieving self-set goals enhances self-efficacy and perceived competence through positive reinforcement and mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997; Schunk and Pajares, 2009). In other words, goal fulfillment acts as evidence that students possess the skills and abilities needed to succeed, which reinforces their competence beliefs (Elliot and Dweck, 2005).

From a psychoanalytic perspective, Adler emphasized that an individual’s social needs and perceived competence development are crucial for personality growth and overall well-being (Adler, 1927). In the Chinese context, Wang and Liu (2019) similarly highlighted that perceived gains in competence reflect the degree to which students’ social and psychological needs are met through the educational process. As students perceive their competence to grow, they are more likely to experience positive emotions, which in turn shape their evaluation of the learning environment (Bastian et al., 2014). This process also resonates with Conservation of Resources theory, which suggests that goal attainment signals a gain in personal resources (e.g., skills, knowledge), reducing stress and enabling further resource accumulation such as confidence and competence (Hobfoll, 1989).

Empirical studies support the importance of perceived competence as an intermediate mechanism connecting institutional performance to students’ subjective satisfaction. For example, Komarraju et al. (2010) found that university environments that encourage skill development and academic competence enhance students’ intrinsic motivation and satisfaction. Similarly, Cazan and Schiopca (2014) showed that students who feel they have acquired meaningful competencies during their studies report greater academic engagement and satisfaction. International evidence has also demonstrated that perceived competence is positively linked with students’ evaluation of their overall university experience (Bastian et al., 2014; Komarraju et al., 2010). Yang et al. (2022) further found that students’ perceptions of goal fulfillment in learning contexts directly predicted competence beliefs, which subsequently mediated their academic satisfaction. In fact, satisfying the need for competence has been empirically linked to greater student well-being and contentment in school. Ryan and Deci (2020) noted that students who experience higher competence fulfillment tend to report higher overall satisfaction with their educational experience. This aligns with a broad body of work indicating that when academic environments provide optimal challenges, feedback, and opportunities to build mastery, students’ sense of competence increases, leading to more positive appraisals of their learning outcomes.

Drawing on the EDT and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, this study conceptualizes perceived competence acquisition as a key mediator between perceived goal attainment and other dimensions of student experience. Specifically, when students believe their expectations for learning and skill development are fulfilled, they are more likely to perceive gains in competence, which in turn positively influence how they evaluate their broader learning and campus life (Komarraju et al., 2010; Cazan and Schiopca, 2014). Recent studies have also found that perceived competence functions as a significant mediator linking students’ goal achievement and their academic or life satisfaction (Van Dinther et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2022). This perspective aligns with prior research showing that students’ positive emotional states and self-perceived mastery enhance their satisfaction with learning contexts.

Perceived curriculum and learning refer to students’ evaluative judgments of their academic experiences, including course content, instructional quality, classroom interaction, assessment formats, and feedback mechanisms (Gruber et al., 2010; Suarman et al., 2013). These factors represent the core of the academic process and directly shape students’ cognitive and emotional responses toward their educational environment. Studies have consistently shown that high-quality teaching and intellectually engaging curricula are major predictors of student satisfaction (Aldemir and Gulcan, 2004; Alves and Raposo, 2007; Bell, 2021).

Drawing on EDT, students develop expectations about what and how they will learn in HEIs. When actual academic experiences align with or exceed these expectations—such as receiving timely feedback, experiencing curriculum relevance, or perceiving fairness in assessment—positive disconfirmation leads to enhanced satisfaction (Oliver, 1980; Elliott and Shin, 2002).

In the Chinese context, where academic success remains a dominant performance indicator, satisfaction with learning is particularly salient. For instance, Zhang et al. (2013) and Gu and Lu (2023) emphasize that perceptions of teaching quality, assessment fairness, and classroom engagement are central to Chinese students’ satisfaction formation. Accordingly, perceived curriculum and learning are hypothesized to function not only as a direct contributor to student satisfaction but also as a mediating mechanism between students’ perceived goal attainment and their overall evaluation of HEIs life.

Perceived infrastructure and daily life refer to students’ evaluations of the material and logistical aspects of their HEIs environment, including dormitory quality, food service, transportation, campus safety, internet access, and other support facilities (Douglas et al., 2006; Gruber et al., 2010). These dimensions are especially important in shaping students’ sense of well-being and institutional attachment, particularly for residential and full-time students.

Under the framework of EDT, students enter HEIs with expectations not only about academic experiences but also about the surrounding living conditions. If the actual living environment—such as dormitory comfort, service affordability, campus safety, or reliability of internet infrastructure—meets or surpasses these expectations, positive disconfirmation occurs, leading to stronger emotional attachment to the institution and higher satisfaction (Oliver, 1980; Tessema et al., 2012). International research supports this view: Arambewela and Hall (2009) found that infrastructure and safety significantly predict international students’ satisfaction. Similarly, Suarman et al. (2013) and Jiménez-Bucarey et al. (2021) showed that university service quality and facility management play a decisive role in overall satisfaction.

In the Chinese higher education context, students’ satisfaction is also highly responsive to infrastructure-related factors such as dormitory conditions, affordability of campus services, and reliability of technical infrastructure (Gu and Lu, 2023).

Recent research suggests that competence acquisition (i.e., the belief in one’s learning progress and skill development) may serve as a precursor to improved perceptions of both academic and non-academic campus experiences (Komarraju et al., 2010; Nguyen et al., 2024). In particular, as students develop a stronger sense of competence, they tend to engage more actively in learning processes and participate more confidently in campus life, which in turn enhances their perception of teaching quality, service delivery, and infrastructure effectiveness (Van Dinther et al., 2011).

From the perspective of SDT, competence fulfillment not only generates intrinsic motivation but also positively influences the way students interpret subsequent experiences. Luna-Cortes (2024) further illustrates this chain process, finding that students’ cognitive recalibration (e.g., adjusting expectations and recognizing competence growth) improved their satisfaction through indirect changes in experience appraisal. Analogously, we propose that competence acquisition may sequentially influence satisfaction by enhancing students’ perceptions of both curriculum and learning, and infrastructure and daily life.

By integrating these perspectives, the proposed model links cognitive evaluation (EDT), psychological needs (SDT), and structural pathway mechanisms (chain mediation) into a coherent explanatory chain from perceived goal attainment to overall satisfaction. Accordingly, this study develops a chain-mediated hypothetical model (Figure 1) to clarify the relationships among perceived goal attainment, perceived competence acquisition, curriculum and learning, infrastructure and daily life, and student satisfaction, and proposes the following hypotheses:

Between April and June 2021, to ensure the representativeness of the data, a stratified sampling strategy was adopted, taking into account both institutional level and institutional quality. Participants were recruited from 13 HEIs in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Guizhou, and other provinces across China. Data were collected through online surveys using Questionnaire Star, WeChat, and other digital platforms. A total of 3,819 responses were initially obtained. All participants were recruited on a voluntary basis through convenience sampling. The survey introduction provided an overview of the research purpose, eligibility criteria, confidentiality assurances, and participants’ right to withdraw at any time. Prior to data collection, the research procedures and instruments were reviewed and approved by the institutional ethics committee in accordance with standard ethical guidelines. After removing invalid and low-quality responses (e.g., patterned responses or completion times under 180 s), a final valid sample of 2,981 responses was retained, yielding a valid response rate of 78.06%. The final sample comprised 38.1% male and 61.9% female respondents. The majority were Han Chinese (89.4%), with ethnic minorities accounting for 10.6%. The sample included first- to fifth-year undergraduates (56.8, 19.8, 17.4, 5.6, and 0.4%, respectively), which reflects the typical four-year undergraduate structure in China with some five-year programs. Regarding disciplinary distribution, 34.49% majored in science and engineering, 13.79% in medical science, 46.29% in economics, management, and humanities, and 4.43% in arts and physical education. Regarding regional distribution, 53.7% of students were from HEIs in more economically developed regions, and 46.3% from less developed regions. By institutional type, 82.2% were ordinary undergraduate students enrolled in ordinary undergraduate universities, while 17.8% were vocational undergraduate students enrolled in vocational undergraduate institutions. This distribution aligns with the national pattern in which the number of ordinary undergraduate students substantially exceeds that of vocational undergraduates.

The data were analyzed using SPSS 27.0 and AMOS 28.0. First, confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis were conducted on each scale using SPSS 27.0 and AMOS 28.0 to assess their validity and reliability. Second, a common method bias test, descriptive statistics, and correlation analyses were performed using SPSS 27.0. Third, Model 6 of the PROCESS macro was used to examine the direct and indirect relationships among Perceived Goal Attainment, Student Satisfaction, Perceived Competence Acquisition, Perceived Curriculum and Learning, and Perceived Infrastructure and Daily Life. Additionally, the mediating effect of work alienation was further assessed using the bias-corrected bootstrap method. If the 95% confidence interval (CI) for the mediating effect does not include zero, it indicates the establishment of a significant mediating role.

To ensure the reliability and validity of the measurement instruments, the dataset was randomly split into two halves. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted on the first half of the data (n = 1,491) using principal components analysis with Varimax rotation. The results demonstrated that the Cronbach’s α coefficients for all dimensions ranged from 0.75 to 0.92, indicating satisfactory internal consistency. The composite reliability (CR) values ranged from 0.86 to 0.92, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.70 (Hair, 1998). The average variance extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.67 to 0.79, meeting or exceeding the recommended minimum standard of 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). These results indicate that the scales exhibit acceptable reliability and convergent validity.

Subsequently, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the remaining half of the data (n = 1,490). The Curriculum and Learning scale and the Infrastructure and Daily Life scale were tested separately in the CFA model because the standardized factor loading of one item in each dimension was relatively low (below 0.50). For the Curriculum and Learning, the model fit indices were χ²/df = 5.048, RMSEA = 0.052, GFI = 0.962, AGFI = 0.947, NFI = 0.972, IFI = 0.978, TLI = 0.972, CFI = 0.978, and PNFI = 0.787. For the Infrastructure and Daily Life, the CFA results indicated χ²/df = 6.140, RMSEA = 0.059, GFI = 0.962, AGFI = 0.942, NFI = 0.969, IFI = 0.974, TLI = 0.966, CFI = 0.974, and PNFI = 0.745. Chi-square values tend to be inflated in large samples (Byrne, 2010). Overall, these results indicate that the questionnaire demonstrates good structural validity.

To assess potential common method bias (CMB), three complementary techniques were applied. First, Harman’s single-factor test indicated that 11 factors with eigenvalues above 1.0 were extracted, and the first factor accounted for 33.10% of the total variance. When the proportion of variance explained by the first factor is below 40%, it is generally interpreted as evidence that no substantial common method bias exists (Fuller et al., 2016; Podsakoff et al., 2003).

Second, a single-factor confirmatory factor analysis was performed. The single-factor model showed poor fit (χ²/df = 149.61, CFI = 0.591, RMSEA = 0.223), indicating that a single factor cannot adequately represent all measurement items. Following Podsakoff et al. (2003), poor fit in a single-factor CFA suggests that common method bias is unlikely to be a serious concern.

Third, a Common Latent Factor (CLF) approach was applied as a robustness check. A latent method factor was introduced, loading on all observed indicators, and model fit indices were compared between models with and without the CLF. For the learning model, adding the CLF improved the fit slightly (CFI: 0.984 → 0.994, ΔCFI = 0.010; RMSEA: 0.054 → 0.035, ΔRMSEA = 0.019). For the living model, the changes were similarly small (CFI: 0.980 → 0.988, ΔCFI = 0.008; RMSEA: 0.063 → 0.056, ΔRMSEA = 0.007). For large group sizes, Rutkowski and Svetina (2014) recommended more liberal criteria for assessing model fit changes, namely ΔCFI ≤ 0.020 and ΔRMSEA ≤ 0.030. The present results met these thresholds for both models, suggesting that substantial common method variance is unlikely to exist.

Additionally, to ensure the absence of multicollinearity, variance inflation factors (VIFs) were calculated for all independent variables. The VIF values ranged from 1.57 to 2.16, and tolerance values ranged from 0.46 to 0.64, which are well within the commonly accepted standards of VIF < 5 and tolerance > 0.20, indicating no evidence of problematic multicollinearity (Hair et al., 2018; Menard, 1995).

Preliminary checks indicated that skewness values for all continuous variables ranged from −0.53 to 0.44, and kurtosis values ranged from 0.08 to 1.16, falling within the acceptable range of −2 to +2 (Kline, 2015), suggesting approximate normality of the data distribution. The results of the correlation analysis (see Table 1) indicate that Perceived Goal Attainment was significantly and positively correlated with Student Satisfaction (r = 0.66, p < 0.001), Perceived Competence Acquisition (r = 0.66, p < 0.001), Curriculum and Learning (r = 0.48, p < 0.001), and Infrastructure and Daily Life (r = 0.53, p < 0.001). Student Satisfaction was also significantly and positively related to Perceived Competence Acquisition (r = 0.50, p < 0.001), Curriculum and Learning (r = 0.39, p < 0.001), and Infrastructure and Daily Life (r = 0.47, p < 0.001). Additionally, Perceived Competence Acquisition was significantly and positively associated with both Curriculum and Learning (r = 0.58, p < 0.001) and Infrastructure and Daily Life (r = 0.50, p < 0.001). Finally, Curriculum and Learning was significantly and positively correlated with Infrastructure and Daily Life (r = 0.42, p < 0.001). These findings provide initial support for the proposed relationships among the study variables.

Consistent with H1, perceived goal attainment had a strong and significant direct effect on student satisfaction. This result aligns with the core tenets of EDT (Oliver, 1980), which suggests that satisfaction arises when individuals perceive a match between their expectations and actual outcomes. When students believe they are making progress toward academic or personal goals, they are more likely to evaluate their overall higher education experience positively. Prior studies have similarly found goal fulfillment to be a key predictor of satisfaction across educational settings (Tessema et al., 2012; Pham et al., 2024). Recent studies have also emphasized that perceived goal attainment serves as a cognitive resource that boosts students’ internal motivation and academic confidence (Chen et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2024). In the context of China’s performance-driven higher education system, such perceptions may carry even greater weight, serving as a central evaluative standard in students’ assessment of their academic journey.

Supporting H2, perceived competence acquisition significantly mediated the relationship between goal attainment and student satisfaction. This finding is in line with SDT, which emphasizes competence as a fundamental psychological need that enhances intrinsic motivation and personal well-being (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Students who perceive that they are gaining knowledge, skills, and abilities not only experience a greater sense of self-efficacy but also derive greater meaning from their academic efforts. In this study, competence acquisition accounted for a meaningful portion of the total effect, reinforcing its explanatory importance as a psychological mechanism. This pathway highlights the internal processes through which cognitive appraisals of achievement are transformed into affective responses like satisfaction. This is consistent with findings from Vo and Ho (2024), who noted that competence acquisition promotes student satisfaction by fostering autonomy and mastery motivation.

The findings also supported H3, indicating that students’ evaluations of their academic experiences—specifically curriculum design and learning processes—partially mediated the link between perceived goal attainment and satisfaction. Although this effect was not as strong as that of competence acquisition, it remained meaningful. As students perceive greater goal progress, they may simultaneously raise their expectations for learning environments. When these expectations are met, satisfaction is further reinforced. This pattern reflects a broader psychological mechanism in which academic achievement heightens sensitivity to educational quality. Zhang et al. (2023) similarly emphasized that satisfaction with curriculum plays a key role in sustaining academic motivation.

The results further supported H4, showing that perceived infrastructure and daily life significantly mediated the relationship between perceived goal attainment and student satisfaction. This suggests that as students perceive higher goal attainment, they may also evaluate the adequacy of campus facilities and daily services more positively, which in turn enhances overall satisfaction. Such findings align with research indicating that quality campus infrastructure and well-organized daily services contribute substantially to the student experience and overall well-being (Guo et al., 2024; Huang and Lai, 2024).

In addition to independent mediators, we identified two significant sequential mediation pathways. First, consistent with H5, perceived goal attainment enhanced perceived competence acquisition, which in turn improved perceptions of curriculum and learning, ultimately increasing satisfaction. Second, supporting H6, perceived goal attainment enhanced perceived competence acquisition, which then improved perceptions of infrastructure and daily life, also contributing to greater satisfaction. These findings resonate with the conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 2001), suggesting that students’ internal resources (such as perceived competence) can be converted into contextual engagement (such as appreciation of the learning or living environment), which cumulatively enhance satisfaction. Although these sequential effects were not the primary drivers of satisfaction, they reveal an important process of psychological reinforcement and environmental alignment.

Regarding the control variables, several contextual factors exhibited statistically significant influences on student satisfaction, meriting further discussion. First, grade (student year) showed a consistently negative effect on satisfaction (β ≈ −0.03 to −0.05, p < 0.01), suggesting that more senior students tend to report lower satisfaction. This aligns with findings that school belonging often declines as students progress through higher grades (Neel and Fuligni, 2013; Högberg et al., 2021). Second, institution type exhibited a significant negative association with perceived infrastructure and daily life (β ≈ −0.29, p < 0.001), suggesting that students in vocational colleges reported significantly lower satisfaction with infrastructure and daily life compared to undergraduates. This is consistent with evidence that institutions with fewer resources and weaker reputations often deliver less satisfactory campus support services (Guo et al., 2024; Huang and Lai, 2024). Third, being from a more developed (regional) area was associated with higher satisfaction (β ≈ 0.17 to 0.19, p < 0.001), meaning that students from more developed regions perceived higher satisfaction. Prior Chinese higher education studies have found that institutions in developed regions tend to provide better logistical support, campus environment, and resource availability, which in turn enhance student satisfaction (Gu and Lu, 2023; Liu and Ma, 2018).