With the advancement of digital technology, people can access a wide range of online content without the limitations of time and place (Knell, 2021). The golf industry has shown a growing trend in content distribution on online platforms. Instagram is a representative platform for sharing photos and short videos (Hu et al., 2014), whereas YouTube and Netflix are major video platforms. With the widespread use of mobile devices and tablet PCs, the use of OTT services has also expanded. Unlike traditional TV broadcasting, online platforms allow users to watch videos and obtain information conveniently (Puthiyakath and Goswami, 2021). These platforms enable individuals to promote themselves, share content, and acquire new knowledge through social networking sites (SNS) and other online media.

In the past, golf was widely perceived as an expensive sport that was difficult to access. However, with the expansion of screen golf, a more affordable alternative, golf has become more accessible and popular among the general public (Lee and Kwon, 2021). As the number of golf participants has increased, online lesson content on YouTube and golf broadcasts have become more widespread and frequently consumed (Sorbie et al., 2020). Previously, golfers had to physically visit a location to receive lessons but the rise in online lesson content has allowed easier access to information. This trend has also provided an opportunity to effectively convey information online, allowing viewers and presenters to communicate and interact through dialogic content in digital environments (Zhang et al., 2024). As a result, people have increasingly turned to video-based content when they seek to learn something (Rosenthal, 2018; Jebe and Park, 2019).

Viewers often feel a sense of familiarity and closeness with the presenter, even without having met them in person (Kowert and Daniel, 2021). This phenomenon where individuals engage and form a sense of relationship with a figure beyond the screen is referred to as parasocial interaction (PSI) or a parasocial relationship (PSR) (Horton and Richard Wohl, 1956; Rubin et al., 1985; Frederick et al., 2012). These experiences can arise from various factors, such as whether the instructor possesses a likable or charismatic personality (Rubin and McHugh, 1987; Lee and Watkinson, 2016), and whether they consistently exhibit the same attitudes and beliefs over time (Turner, 1993; Frederick et al., 2012). To minimize the perceived disconnection between online and offline environments, it is important for the instructor to convey a sense of warmth and closeness to the viewer (Beautemps and Bresges, 2021). Moreover, transitioning from relatively short-term PSI to a more sustained and enduring PSR (Liebers and Schramm, 2019) requires the presenter to not only demonstrate subject-matter expertise but also possess the ability to evoke empathy from learners.

Instagram has also gained recognition as an effective promotional tool across various fields, increasing the influence of social media influencers (Brag, 2019). Many golf professionals now produce and share short-form content, such as brief lesson clips or swing videos, on Instagram (Lee and Kim, 2024). When individuals present themselves through social networking services (SNS), they can imprint their self-image on learners and viewers while also creating a foundation for the development of parasocial interactions (Kim and Song, 2016). Moreover, platforms such as YouTube and Instagram allow viewers to provide immediate responses and feedback, and when viewers observe that their comments or suggestions are acknowledged and reflected, their interest and engagement tend to increase (Bond, 2016). As the influence of the online market continues to grow (Haenlein et al., 2020), golf instructors must strategically utilize online platforms to promote themselves and maintain competitiveness. Additionally, media professionals actively appear in videos of popular YouTubers or participate in popular golf tournaments, such as the G-Tour, to gain media exposure (Kang and Park, 2015). As online content delivers information easily and offers entertainment value (Wendt et al., 2016), golf instructors who appear in such content can build public recognition more effectively.

Previously, golf professionals were categorized as teaching professionals, who primarily focus on instruction, and tour professionals, who compete in tournaments. With the development of media, a new group of professionals has emerged, referred to as media professionals, who are primarily active in broadcasting or social media. These individuals often attract attention owing to their attractive appearance or favorable physical attributes and, like tour players, receive sponsorship for clothing and equipment. The widespread use of sponsorship in sports reflects its strong marketing impact on athletes and influencers (Erdogan et al., 2001).

Previously, sports instructors were evaluated primarily based on their teaching abilities. However, Housner and French (1994) stated that sports instructors should be evaluated not only for their teaching ability but also for their skills in sports and their knowledge of sports education. In addition, golf instructors are expected to cultivate a positive mindset toward the sport, beyond just teaching technical skills (Cromack, 2011). In contrast to the previously performance-oriented perception of athletes, increasing visibility through media has shifted the criteria for determining their value, with not only performance but also appearance and image playing significant roles (Wolter, 2010). Therefore, athletes must use online media as an essential tool for self-promotion (Davies and Mudrick, 2017).

This study aims to examine how amateur golfers perceive the instructor image of media golf professionals through broadcasts and online platforms, and how these perceptions influence instructor trust and customer satisfaction. Boulding et al. (1964) defined image as the mental picture of an individual based on subjective perceptions. An instructor’s image is derived from their competency, expertise, role, and attitude, which together foster psychological stability and build trust in the instructor (Kolter and Clarke, 1987). Kumar (1996) described trust as a fundamental concept for forming positive relationships and defined it as the emotional expectation that the other party will meet one’s needs. The confidence inspired by the instructor has a significant effect on learners’ psychological stability (Cook and Wall, 1980). In the case of media-based instruction, learners receive lessons from media professionals’ functions not only as students but also as customers. Their satisfaction is crucial for maintaining long-term golf participation and continued engagement with lesson content. Satisfaction is an emotional response based on personal experience and performance (Tiffin and McCormick, 1965). Customer satisfaction, specifically, refers to emotional reactions to the quality of services received (Howard and Sheth, 1969). Thus, it is not simply the instructor’s appearance but the quality of the lesson content and its impact on the learner’s performance that influences satisfaction. Because media professionals play the dual roles of instructors and content providers, it is important to examine their effectiveness using these constructs.

An effective instructor must possess not only advanced instructional skills (Mageau and Vallerand, 2003) but also professional knowledge that supports learners’ development (Sucipto et al., 2017). These qualities help foster trust in the instructor, which is essential for learner satisfaction, and play a critical role in encouraging continued participation in sports. However, media professionals tend to be evaluated on their appearance more than their instructional abilities, and prior research on their instructor image is lacking. Additionally, because media professionals often teach exclusively online and cannot take direct responsibility for learners’ outcomes, research on trust in media professionals is limited. Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the relationship between media professionals’ instructor image, trust, and customer satisfaction.

The research hypotheses are as follows:

This study examines the image of golf professionals in the media and investigates whether it affects instructors’ trust and customer satisfaction. The results of this study showed that, among the components of instructor image, expertise, competency, and role positively influenced instructor trust, whereas attitude did not show a significant effect, which is consistent with prior findings that professional certification levels strongly shape amateur golfers’ perceptions of expertise, credibility, and participation intentions (Yang et al., 2024). Previous studies have shown that instructors’ or leaders’ attitudes can significantly influence trust and learning outcomes even in non-face-to-face contexts (Schrodt et al., 2009; Li et al., 2021). However, in media-based instruction, attitudes may be less directly perceived by learners, thereby reducing their immediate effect compared to expertise and competence. This difference suggests that the impact of attitudes on trust may vary depending on the instructional environment, underscoring the need for future studies to further examine contextual moderators. Expertise, attitude, and role significantly affected customer satisfaction, whereas competency did not. Finally, instructor trust had a positive effect on customer satisfaction. These results suggest that instructor image positively affects both instructor trust and customer satisfaction, indicating that instructor image plays an important role for learners. Although the explanatory power of instructor image for instructor trust was modest, this finding remains meaningful within the social science context where multiple factors typically shape complex human behavior. It is also acknowledged that unmeasured variables, such as interpersonal communication style, perceived credibility, and prior learning experiences, may further influence the development of instructor trust. Future research should therefore incorporate these additional predictors to achieve a more comprehensive understanding.

Images are formed and shaped by human senses, experiences, and stimuli (Pylyshyn, 1973; Reynolds and Gutman, 1984). An instructor’s image includes competency, expertise, attitudes, and roles. Competency and expertise are objectively evaluated aspects related to an instructor’s ability, whereas attitude and role are emotional aspects that are subjectively evaluated. Instructor expertise refers to outstanding skills and theoretical knowledge in a certain field, and plays an important role in developing learners’ trust (Kao et al., 2017). McAllister (1995) states that learners begin to trust their instructors when they recognize their abilities, implying a close relationship between instructor image and trust. Similarly, Zhang and Chelladurai (2013) suggest that competence, stability, and sincerity are key elements in forming instructor trust. However, attitude did not have a significant effect on the instructors’ trust. Chae et al. (2023) explained that it is difficult to understand another person’s empathy and intentions in non-face-to-face situations. Although some studies have reported that instructors’ attitudes influence trust even in online contexts (Schrodt et al., 2009), other research has shown that expertise and competence in delivering clear information are more critical in forming trust, which aligns with the present findings (Houser and Frymier, 2009; Witt et al., 2004). In face-to-face contexts, direct communication enables learners to more clearly perceive instructors’ attitudes, which has been identified as a key factor in establishing credibility (Li et al., 2021). In contrast, in this study, participants engaged with instructors through media, suggesting that, without the support of specific instructional technologies (Anderson et al., 2001), building trust may be more challenging. Thus, attitudes appear to exert an indirect rather than a direct influence on instructor trust when compared with expertise and competence.

Among the components of instructor image, expertise, attitude, and role positively affected customer satisfaction. In sports, it is important for participants to be satisfied (Burns et al., 2012). Reinboth and Duda (2006) reported that satisfied athletes experienced psychological stability and happiness. Kao and Tsai (2016) state that an instructor’s instructional ability directly affects learner satisfaction, whereas Bendapudi and Berry (1997) report that instructor expertise leads to learner satisfaction. This suggests that when learners evaluate their instructor as having expertise, they feel satisfied with both the instructor and sports performance, a finding that echoes evidence showing that the image attributes of golf star athletes enhance amateur golfers’ participation desire and continuation intention (Yang J. H. et al., 2025). Myers et al. (2011) also found that the technical and competency of the instructor positively affected athlete satisfaction, which partially supports the findings of this study. Eden (2013) stated that learners evaluate an instructor’s competency and that their satisfaction is determined by the interaction. However, competency does not have a significant influence on customer satisfaction. Competency includes enthusiasm (passion), understanding, and the instructor’s ability to positively lead the learner (Myers et al., 2010). However, because the participants in this study did not interact with instructors face-to-face, it is possible that the lack of emotional closeness and sense of security experienced in face-to-face settings influenced the results (Passmore et al., 2023). Nevertheless, both this study and Prentice and Cownie (2020) confirmed that instructor trust can be built even in non-face-to-face situations. Moreover, recent studies on virtual golf and exergaming highlight continuous participation benefits among older adults (Choi et al., 2024), while evidence from super-aging societies demonstrates that health concerns, athletic passion, and leisure satisfaction drive sustained participation (Jun and Choi, 2024). Differences across age groups in enjoyment, exercise commitment, and continuation intention have also been observed (Yang H. J. et al., 2025), extending the implications of the present findings. As situations differ, it is assumed that different elements are involved in building trust. As the results show, learners feel satisfaction depending on the expertise and instructional ability of the instructor; therefore, it is important that instructors continue to develop themselves personally (Irving, 2021). Although non-face-to-face instruction has strengths such as convenience and efficiency (Kinnunen and Georgescu, 2020), to ensure continued viewing and engagement, instructors must put in effort to enhance their instructional competence.

Trust in instructors has a significant effect on customer satisfaction. Bandura and Kavussanu (2018) stated that higher instructor trust increases sports satisfaction, and that trustworthy instructors are authentic and provide autonomy. Trust is strengthened when an instructor is genuinely committed to a learner’s development and provides clear goals and motivation (Gulak-Lipka, 2017). LaVoi (2007) emphasizes that when an instructor understands and respects the learner, the learner feels close and tries to maintain the relationship. This promotes positive social interaction, and learners experience satisfaction through this process. Li et al. (2021) also reported that high instructor trust reduces learners’ anxiety. Despite different backgrounds, this study found a positive relationship between instructor trust and customer satisfaction. Jowett (2017) stated that when learners trust their instructors, they achieve better results through collaborative relationships. This suggests that when trust is built into the instructor, learners feel satisfied and are positively influenced by their skill development.

Taken together, this study confirms that even media golf professionals can form a positive instructor image, and that such an image can contribute to building instructor trust. Expertise and instructional ability are the most important factors in forming an instructor’s perception and trust. Because golf professionals are mostly encountered through the media or online, factors such as attitude, including sincerity and confidence, were not found to influence instructor trust or satisfaction. These results show that instructor image, instructor trust, and customer satisfaction are significantly related. When an instructor’s image is well established, trust is built, which leads to customer satisfaction–a connection confirmed in this study.