Sport psychology (SP) is primarily concerned with addressing the psychological challenges that arise in the context of sport participation (Jarvis, 2006). SP practitioners primarily work with athletes and coaches, the central recipients of SP services, while also supporting teams and sport organizations across both professional and recreational settings, with interventions tailored to specific performance needs (Fortin-Guichard et al., 2018).

Yet, the effectiveness and widespread uptake of SP services often hinge on the attitudes of those they are intended to support (Martin et al., 2012) Early research highlighted a general reluctance among athletes to engage with SP, marked by skepticism and a hesitancy to seek psychological support (Ravizza, 1988). Those who did access such services frequently encountered stigma, experiencing a “negative halo effect” that adversely affected their social standing within the sport environment (Linder et al., 1989).

More recent evidence, however, points to a positive shift in these perceptions. Both athletes and coaches have demonstrated growing acceptance and increased use of SP services (Fortin-Guichard et al., 2018). This evolving attitude is mirrored in the growing institutionalization of SP within sport organizations and competitive contexts (Martin et al., 2002; Martin et al., 2004). By the early 2000s, collegiate athletes were increasingly viewing SP in a more favorable light, largely free from the negative connotations previously associated with seeking psychological support (Gentner et al., 2004; Van Raalte et al., 2016). Similar patterns have been observed among American high school coaches (Zakrajsek et al., 2011) and youth sport coaches in the United Kingdom (Barker and Winter, 2014). Despite this encouraging trend, resistance persists in certain segments of the sports community, and attitudinal discrepancies continue to influence how SP services are integrated and utilized across various settings.

Attitudes toward SP are shaped by a range of demographic and contextual factors, including gender, age, and competitive level. Each dimension contributes uniquely to how SP is perceived and engaged with by athletes and coaches. Among these, gender has emerged as one of the most consistently examined influences (Fortin-Guichard et al., 2018). For example, studies conducted in both the UK and the US have found that female athletes are more likely to seek psychological support and hold positive views of SP. Similarly, female coaches in the US tend to report more supportive attitudes toward SP (Brooks and Bull, 1999; Martin, 2005; Zakrajsek and Zizzi, 2007; Wrisberg et al., 2010). However, not all findings are consistent: for instance, research on US high school coaches found no significant gender-based differences in SP attitudes (Nelson, 2008), highlighting the potential role of cultural and contextual variables.

Age is another key factor. In Western countries such as the US and the UK, younger athletes, particularly those at non-elite levels, are more likely to associate help-seeking with stigma or fear of negative judgment for engaging with SP services (Martin, 2005; Bell et al., 2022). Encouragingly, exposure to SP interventions—such as mental skills training—can positively shift these attitudes, especially among younger athletes (Sharp et al., 2013). In contrast, older and elite-level athletes tend to express more supportive and open attitudes toward SP (Gentner et al., 2004; Wrisberg et al., 2009).

Competitive level also plays a role in shaping perceptions. While coaches generally express positive attitudes toward SP regardless of competitive context, younger coaches (under 30) tend to report more negative views compared to their older peers (Zakrajsek et al., 2011; Michel, 2013). Taken together, these findings emphasize the complex interplay of gender, age, and competitive experience in shaping SP attitudes, and they suggest a need for further research that accounts for these intersecting variables across a wider range of sporting populations.

Beyond individual and contextual dimensions, broader cultural and national frameworks also exert a significant influence on how SP is perceived and adopted. While sport is increasingly understood as a transnational phenomenon—with globalization facilitating the exchange of cultural practices and shaping regional identities (Giulianotti and Robertson, 2007)—the current body of SP research remains largely concentrated in Anglo-Saxon countries (Fortin-Guichard et al., 2018). This geographic concentration limits our understanding of the global diversity in SP attitudes and practices.

Cross-cultural comparisons reveal meaningful differences. Athletes in countries such as Great Britain and New Zealand generally hold more positive views of SP, while those from Eastern cultures tend to exhibit greater skepticism (Sullivan and Hodge, 1991; Byrne and Cusack, 2015; Ong and Harwood, 2018). Coaches in Western nations also demonstrate openness to SP, but those in countries such as the Philippines appear more hesitant (Barker and Winter, 2014; Guinto-Adviento, 2016). Comparative studies among athletes in the US, UK, Spain, and Germany show that those in the UK and Spain are more likely to trust SP consultants and report less stigma around using psychological services (Martin et al., 2004; Checa et al., 2023). These findings reinforce the powerful influence of cultural and national settings and the need for greater geographic diversity in SP research.

As emphasized by Schinke and Stambulova (2017) cultural context significantly shapes the practice of sport psychology, influencing everything from intervention strategies to conceptual frameworks. Yet, existing research tends to generalize across regions, lacking the cultural specificity needed to understand how SP is understood and utilized in different contexts.

Despite Italy’s prominent role in global sport—as evidenced by its significant presence in the Paris 2024 Olympic Games (CONI - Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano, 2024) and the increasing adoption of SP services—there is a notable gap in empirical research examining how Italian athletes and coaches perceive SP. This study seeks to address that gap by investigating attitudes toward SP in the Italian context. By assessing general perceptions as well as potential demographic variations, this research contributes to a more comprehensive and culturally grounded understanding of SP practices. In doing so, it aims to broaden the global discourse on sport psychology and inform more inclusive, culturally sensitive approaches to practice and implementation.

Given the dominance of Anglo-Saxon perspectives in the SP literature, the applicability of such frameworks in other cultures remain uncertain. This study investigated how cultural factors may shape attitudes toward SP services by examining Italian athletes’ and coaches’ attitudes across gender, age, and competitive level.

CFA of the Italian version of the SPAR and SPARC supported an adequate model fit for both instruments, though the SPA-R’s Personal Openness scale showed low reliability, possibly due to response variability (Amirrudin et al., 2020). Because translation differences minimally impact psychometric properties (Detregiachi and Altran, 2023), the low reliability score of the PO subscale of the SPA-R—which fully reflects the scoring of the original subscale—might have been impacted by sample size or by variations in participant perspectives. Nonetheless, the identified low internal reliability in the PO subscale potentially limits the validity of demographic comparisons and interpretation of related findings.

Despite the PO subscale’s limitation, Italian athletes’ attitudes align with international trends, offering a foundation for cross-cultural comparisons. For example, Italian athletes reported low stigma and moderately high confidence in SP, mirroring findings from New Zealand and Spain, though with slightly lower confidence in service effectiveness (Anderson et al., 2004; Checa et al., 2023). This discrepancy may be attributed to limited access to SP services in Italy, as reflected by the fact that only 35% of athletes in the current sample had previous exposure to SP. While elite athletes may benefit from access to multidisciplinary support teams (Reid et al., 2004), there is limited evidence on the accessibility of SP services for athletes at all levels, and non-elite athletes and coaches often navigate these challenges independently (Moesch et al., 2018).

A possible limiting role in accessibility could be brought by organizational deficiencies in Italy. In Anglo-Saxon contexts, research has shown that structural issues within sports organizations hinder the delivery of SP interventions (McDougall et al., 2015). Yet, recent efforts in the UK have aimed to embed psychologically informed practices within organizational frameworks, enhancing both performance and culture (Wagstaff and Quartiroli, 2023). Drawing from the UK experience, it becomes evident that a structured and culturally informed organizational approach is essential for the effective integration of SP. Without clear frameworks or culturally sensitive practices embedded within sports organizations, the adoption and effectiveness of SP in Italy may remain limited, particularly outside elite-level contexts. Additionally, the comparatively lower confidence in SP among Italian non-elite coaches, when contrasted with their elite-level counterparts, may reflect systemic limitations in accessibility as seen in other countries (Gould et al., 1991; Gentner et al., 2004; Barker and Winter, 2014). Addressing these challenges through clearer institutional frameworks and increased organizational support is essential for fostering equitable and widespread access to SP services across all levels of Italian sport.

While Italian athletes expressed less confidence in SP effectiveness, they were more open to consulting SP practitioners from diverse cultural backgrounds than their British, American, and German counterparts (Martin et al., 2004). Over the past two decades, Italy’s foreign-born population has increased by more than 6% (ISTAT - Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, 2023), a demographic shift reflected in the sports domain, where second-generation immigrants are more actively engaged than first-generation athletes (van Tubergen and Molteni, 2024). This growing presence of foreign-born individuals—both in society and in sports—may contribute to greater openness among Italian athletes toward culturally diverse practitioners. As second-generation immigrants bring varied perspectives and lived experiences, they may foster inclusive team dynamics and promote cross-cultural exchange, with sport serving as a platform for cultural integration (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2013). Such multicultural exposure within training environments likely enhances athletes’ receptiveness to consulting professionals from different cultural backgrounds. This trend underscores the value of cultivating culturally diverse and inclusive support systems within sport.

However, gender-based differences emerged: Italian female athletes and coaches showed a stronger preference for consultants who shared similar cultural backgrounds. This contrasts with existing research suggesting that women in sport generally express more favorable attitudes toward SP than men (Brooks and Bull, 1999; Martin, 2005; Zakrajsek and Zizzi, 2007; Wrisberg et al., 2009, 2010). One possible explanation is a relative lack of exposure to multiculturalism within women’s sports contexts. A study by Naoi et al. (2011) suggest that cultural homogeneity may reinforce preferences for practitioners with shared identities. Moreover, research highlights the scarcity of policies and initiatives aimed at promoting cultural diversity and multicultural awareness in women’s sports (Cortis, 2009). As a result, women’s sports in Italy may be missing out on the benefits of increasing demographic diversity. The underrepresentation of women in decision-making roles—such as their minimal presence in football leadership, which barely exceeds 15% (Trequattrini et al., 2022)—may further limit the implementation of inclusive policies. These findings suggest that without intentional efforts to promote multicultural awareness, the effectiveness and reach of SP services may remain constrained, particularly for female athletes and coaches.

In contrast with the more favorable views of athletes, younger Italian coaches reported greater stigma and lower confidence in SP, consistent with findings among American coaches under 30 (Zakrajsek et al., 2011; Michel, 2013). Similarly, older Italian coaches exhibited less openness to discussing personal issues—an attitude not mirrored in Anglo-Saxon populations (Sullivan and Hodge, 1991; Byrne and Cusack, 2015). While previous literature suggests that exposure to SP can positively influence perceptions (Bell et al., 2022), the fact that over half of respondents in the current study had prior exposure, yet retained negative attitudes, indicates that cultural factors may override experiential familiarity. The Italian coaches’ attitude to SP mirrors trends observed in Eastern cultural contexts, where openness is not a strong predictor of SP receptivity due to underlying concerns about family honor and emotional restraint (Guinto-Adviento, 2016; Ong and Harwood, 2018). Similarly, Italy’s culture of honor—rooted in traditions that discourage emotional expressiveness (Vitiello, 2023)—may serve as a barrier to SP acceptance. These findings highlight the importance cultural context in shaping SP engagement (Yasuda, 2022) and identification of the root causes of this reluctance is critical, as coaches play a key role in shaping athletes’ intentions (Wekesser et al., 2021). Framed within the Theory of Planned Behavior (Bosnjak et al., 2020), these results suggest that coaches may serve as key agents in influencing subjective norms and perceived behavioral control, both of which are critical determinants of athletes’ intentions to seek SP support.

Tailoring interventions to align with cultural values and norms, particularly among coaches, may enhance acceptance and reduce stigma (Bissett et al., 2020). At the same time, younger coaches—who may hold doubts despite being more receptive—may benefit from educational content integrated into certification programs (Li et al., 2024). Such programs should emphasize the concrete benefits of SP for performance, resilience, and well-being, thereby fostering a culture of openness and trust.

Overall, these findings underscore the importance of understanding the cultural context in which SP operates. Moving beyond the predominantly Anglo-Saxon perspective, culturally informed research is essential to develop interventions that resonate with the values, norms, and expectations of diverse populations. Tailoring SP practices to specific cultural settings can enhance their relevance, effectiveness, and acceptance across multiple stakeholders. Embracing this cultural lens is essential for advancing more equitable and globally relevant SP services.

This study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the restricted age range of participants (most participants falling within an 18 to 26 years old range) limits the generalizability of our findings across different life stages and may obscure potential age-related differences in perceptions of SP. Future studies should aim to include a more diverse age spectrum. Second, the cross-sectional design paired with non-probabilistic sampling, such as online recruitment and snowball sampling, may have introduced self-selection bias, likely overrepresenting individuals with a preexisting interest in SP, and prevented the establishment of causal relationships or changes over time. Longitudinal research or mixed-methods approaches are necessary to track how attitudes toward SP evolve over time, particularly in response to targeted interventions or broader cultural shifts.

Additionally, employing more rigorous sampling strategies, such as stratified random sampling, would enhance the representativeness of future samples. Of note, while our sample size supported multiple univariate analyses, future studies employing multivariate approaches (e.g., MANOVA) could offer greater control over covariates and potential mediators.

Third, issues with the reliability of the Personal Openness subscale of the SPA-R suggest possible challenges in translation or cultural interpretation. Specifically, the SPA-R PO subscale showed low internal reliability, limiting the validity and interpretability of related findings, despite acceptable reliability across other subscales. This underscores the need for further cultural validation and potential adaptation of SP instruments in non-Anglophone contexts.

Finally, the study’s exclusive use of quantitative methodology constrained its ability to detect culturally nuanced perspective and culturally embedded aspects of SP perceptions. Incorporating qualitative methodologies in future research, such as interviews or focus groups, may facilitate a more comprehensive and contextually grounded understanding of SP attitudes.

In conclusion, this study offers a culturally grounded perspective on SP by examining the perceptions of Italian athletes and coaches—a context often underrepresented in the existing literature. By addressing the prevalence of Anglo-Saxon models in SP discourse, our findings broaden the understanding of how SP is perceived across different cultures. The observed openness among Italian stakeholders underscores a promising trajectory for the integration of SP in diverse settings. These insights not only inform future SP practice in Italy but also emphasize the importance of culturally nuanced research to enhance global dialog and collaboration among sport psychology professionals.