University life represents a significant challenge for young people, as it can affect their mental health and increase the incidence of anxiety, stress, or depression (American College Health Association, 2021; Cao et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021; Wathelet et al., 2020). In this context, most students are in adolescence or early adulthood and must cope with various risk factors, such as academic pressure, financial difficulties, romantic breakups, academic failure, and separation from their family environment (Debowska et al., 2022). Moreover, recent studies have shown an increase in anxiety and depression symptoms compared to the period before the pandemic (Lacomba-Trejo et al., 2024; Sánchez-López et al., 2024). A key protective factor against these challenges is the development of emotional intelligence (EI) (Delgado et al., 2024; Koçak, 2021).

EI is defined as the ability to perceive, understand, and regulate both one’s own emotions and those of others (Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Mayer et al., 2016; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Its study is approached from different theoretical perspectives. Joseph and Newman (2010) identified three main models:

Ability model, which views EI as a form of intelligence focused on processing emotional information. It is assessed through performance-based tests, such as the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (Mayer et al., 2002).

Several studies have demonstrated the protective role of EI in mental health and subjective well-being. For example, Mancini et al. (2024) conducted a meta-analysis showing that higher EI is associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression, greater emotional stability, more effective coping strategies, better interpersonal relationships, and greater socio-emotional competence. Similarly, Llamas-Díaz et al. (2022), in another meta-analysis, found a significant positive relationship between EI and subjective well-being in adolescents. Furthermore, numerous studies support the relationship between EI and general well-being (Delhom et al., 2017; Hidalgo-Fuentes et al., 2021; Martín-Talavera et al., 2024; Mikolajczak et al., 2008; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016; Shengyao et al., 2024; Torrelles-Nadal et al., 2024; Vega et al., 2022; Zeidner et al., 2009), as well as with physical health (Martins et al., 2010) and mental health (Barros and Sacau-Fontenla, 2021; Domínguez-García and Fernández-Berrocal, 2018; Dongmei, 2024; Lacomba-Trejo et al., 2024; Salguero et al., 2012; Schutte et al., 2007; Shen et al., 2021). One of the most widely used instruments to assess EI is the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS), which measures individuals’ self-perceived emotional intelligence without right or wrong answers (Salovey et al., 1995). The Spanish-adapted version of the TMMS consists of 24 items grouped into three dimensions (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004): (1) Emotional Attention, which reflects the degree to which individuals believe they pay attention to their emotions; (2) Emotional Clarity, which indicates the perceived ability to identify and understand one’s own emotional states; and (3) Emotional Repair or Regulation, which measures the ability to reduce negative emotions and maintain positive emotional states (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). The study by Fernández-Berrocal et al. (2004) developed a reduced version. The TMMS-24, while maintaining the original scale’s three-factor structure. The revision was primarily motivated by the low reliability observed in the Spanish version of the instrument. Items were eliminated based on their low contribution to reliability and through semantic analysis. Furthermore, negative item wording was changed to a positive format to improve comprehension within the Spanish population. Results with university students showed high reliability for each component (Cronbach’s α = 0.90, 0.90, and 0.86 for Emotional Attention, Emotional Clarity, and Emotional Repair, respectively) and evidence of temporal stability for a 4-week interval (test–retest correlations = 0.60, 0.70, and 0.83, respectively).

The TMMS-24 has been validated in various countries and populations, demonstrating high reliability and psychometric validity in both adults and adolescents (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004; Martín-Albo et al., 2010; Ondé et al., 2021; Patti-Signorelli and de Romero-Díaz, 2023; Salguero et al., 2010; Valdivia et al., 2015). In Spain, Delhom et al. (2017) validated the three-factor structure in older adults, and Ondé et al. (2021) confirmed its reliability and multidimensional nature. Górriz et al. (2021) in a cross-cultural study conducted in Argentina, Ecuador, and Spain, it was concluded that the scale shows convergent and discriminant validity. Similarly, Gonzalez et al. (2021) found that the TMMS-24 is a psychometrically valid tool for assessing emotional intelligence in Argentine university students. In Mexico, Valdivia et al. (2015) evaluated its factorial structure through confirmatory factor analysis, finding adequate model fit. In Brazil, Câmara et al. (2023) found that the TMMS-24 is psychometrically suitable for assessing EI among adolescents. In Poland, Cabello et al. (2025) confirmed its internal consistency and three-dimensional structure in both the original and the Spanish-adapted versions. In Italy, Patti-Signorelli and de Romero-Díaz (2023) confirmed the stability of its psychometric properties in comparison with both the original version by Salovey and its Spanish adaptation (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004).

Additionally, the TMMS-24 has shown significant relationships with other psychological constructs, such as personality and emotional regulation. Saklofske et al. (2007) found correlations between self-reported EI and personality traits. Antoñanzas et al. (2014) evidenced its relationship with extraversion, while Ghiabi and Besharat (2011) identified associations with the five major personality dimensions. Mayer et al. (2004) found correlations between EI and traits such as agreeableness, openness to experience, and conscientiousness. Likewise, Lopes et al. (2003) linked emotional management to extraversion. On the other hand, Pastor et al. (2019) showed that cognitive reappraisal is associated with emotional attention and regulation, whereas expressive suppression is negatively related to emotional clarity and regulation in the TMMS-24. Despite extensive evidence supporting the validity of the TMMS-24 in various contexts, its study remains limited in Latin America, and particularly in Peru. Research in Peru has been conducted with small samples (Bueno-Cuadra et al., 2023) and has not deeply explored its psychometric properties (Bueno-Cuadra et al., 2023; Pérez-Zárate et al., 2021; Ruiz et al., 2022). Specifically, Ruiz et al. (2022) highlighted the need to assess factorial invariance as well as predictive and concurrent validity. Likewise, Pérez-Zárate et al. (2021) suggested a more detailed analysis of its factorial structure.

The urgency to validate the TMMS-24 scale on Peruvian university students is found to be imperative to expand socio-cultural analysis particularities that shape self-assessment and perception of emotional intelligence (EI) in this specific context. EI, which is understood to be a psychological construct is highly influenced by contextual factors and as such, cannot be considered as universal or homogenous in itself. Much to the contrary, it is regulated by moral systems, emotional norms, and social practices that are unique within each culture (Mikolajczak et al., 2008; Cabello et al., 2025). When it comes to Peruvians within university settings, it is distinguished by a structural heterogeneity from being subject to socio-economic limitation, ethno-linguistic diversity, and finite institutionalized mental health politics. Conditions which directly impact the application, development, and recognition of emotional competences (Barros and Sacau-Fontenla, 2021; Bueno-Cuadra et al., 2023).

In this regard, multiple studies have highlighted the need to authenticate and adapt emotional intelligence (EI) instruments catering to cultural and psychosocial specificities of the context by taking into consideration that that emotional regulation strategies and coping mechanisms are culturally determined constructs rather than universal ones (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004; Zeidner et al., 2009). By incorporating a contextualized approach, not only will the finding be provided with greater interpretive accuracy, but it will also strengthen the relevance and legitimacy of the TMMS-24 as a diagnostic tool in Latin American contexts where empirical development on EI is still in development (Pérez-Zárate et al., 2021; Mancini et al., 2024).

In this context, the present study aimed to analyze the psychometric properties of the TMMS-24 in Peruvian university students. Specifically, it sought to:

The main objective of the study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Trait Meta-Mood Scale-24 (TMMS-24) in a sample of Peruvian university students. The results confirmed high reliability and internal consistency for the TMMS-24, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients above 0.80 across the three subscales. These findings are consistent with those reported in the validation of the original version (Salovey et al., 1995), the Spanish adaptation (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004), as well as studies conducted in various sociocultural contexts.

Regarding test–retest reliability, this study, pioneering in the Peruvian context, found significant and substantial correlations, which reinforce the temporal stability of TMMS-24 scores in this population.

The three-dimensional factorial structure (Attention, Clarity, and Repair) of the TMMS-24 was confirmed through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), aligning with the original theoretical model and the conceptualization of emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions (Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004; Salovey et al., 1995). The construct validity of the Spanish version of the TMMS-24 for use in Peruvian university students is supported by the observed factor loadings, which ranged from 0.32 to 0.85. Similar findings have been documented in research with Polish adolescents (Cabello et al., 2025), Italians (Patti-Signorelli and de Romero-Díaz, 2023), Mexicans (Valdivia et al., 2015), Brazilians (Câmara et al., 2023), older adults (Delhom et al., 2017), young Argentinians (Gonzalez et al., 2021), and other studies involving Peruvian university students (Bueno-Cuadra et al., 2023).

Regarding gender differences, results indicated that men scored significantly higher on Emotional Clarity and Repair, while no significant differences were found in Emotional Attention. Some researchers have shown how women present a greater tendency to attend to their emotions and lower clarity and repair in comparison with men (Thayer et al., 2003), although these findings are not consistent and depend on variables such as age and cultural factors (Delhom et al., 2024; Fernández-Berrocal et al., 2004; Górriz et al., 2021; Salguero et al., 2010; Taramuel and Zapata, 2017). These variations suggest the potential influence of sociodemographic, developmental, and cultural factors on EI, highlighting the need for continued exploration of these differences in future research.

With respect to convergent and discriminant validity, results from the emotional regulation scales indicated a positive correlation between cognitive reappraisal and EI, while suppression was negatively associated. These findings align with Pastor et al. (2019), who found that cognitive reappraisal is associated with emotional attention and repair, whereas expressive suppression is negatively related to emotional clarity and repair on the TMMS-24. The positive correlation which was identified among the three dimensions of the TMMS-24 and the strategy of cognitive reappraisal provides empirical support for the hypothesis that heightened emotional competence facilitates the deployment of adaptive regulatory mechanisms—particularly, by the reframing of adverse experiences to attenuate their emotional impact. This association has been consistently substantiated in the literature, wherein cognitive reappraisal has been shown to mediate the positive relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and psychological well-being, mitigating the detrimental effects of anxiety, depressive symptomatology, and academic stress (Barros and Sacau-Fontenla, 2021; Pastor et al., 2019; Shengyao et al., 2024). Indeed, Gross and John (2003) underscore that cognitive reappraisal is intrinsically linked to enhanced emotional regulation, increased emotional self-efficacy, and diminished negative affect—all of which constitute essential components of a functionally integrated model of EI.

Regarding the personality dimensions (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness), positive and significant correlations were found with the three TMMS-24 dimensions. These results are consistent with previous research that has shown relationships between perceived EI and various personality traits (Ghiabi and Besharat, 2011; Mayer et al., 2004; Saklofske et al., 2007; Salguero et al., 2010). The correlational patterns observed with the five major personality dimensions substantiate that, although emotional intelligence (EI) constitutes an autonomous psychological construct, perceived EI, nonetheless, portrays meaningful associations on top of relatively stable dispositional traits. To be specific, the findings reveal positive correlations between perceived EI and the traits of extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and willingness to the experience, suggesting that these personality factors are linked to more refined capacities for emotional recognition, understanding, and regulation both intra-and interpersonally. Much to the contrary, neuroticism, when reconceptualized as its inverse, emotional stability, demonstrates a negative correlation with perceived EI, indicating that higher emotional stability tends to align with greater emotional clarity and regulatory competence. This relationship corroborated by contemporary empirical work (Delhom et al., 2017; Mancini et al., 2024).

Regarding the concurrent validity of the instrument, it is particularly relevant to critically juxtapose these findings with recent Latin American research that has examined emotional intelligence using alternative psychometric scales. In the Colombian context, Arias-Gómez and Jiménez-Toro (2022), through the application of the EQ-i:S, identified an inverse relationship between EI and academic burnout, further reinforcing the construct’s protective function in higher education settings. These findings converge in affirming the consistent linkage between EI and key indicators of psychological well-being and academic adaptability. Thus, the consistency of the TMMS-24 findings backed up with this broader body of evidence strengthens the argument for its concurrent validity and affirms its appropriateness as a diagnostic measure within Latin American university populations.

The study has some limitations. For instance, the sample used consisted solely of university students, limiting the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Moreover, the cross-sectional design of the study prevents establishing causal relationships between the variables. Further studies could examine the validity of the TMMS-24 in different demographic groups, such as adults and older adults within the Peruvian population. It would also be advisable to investigate the relationship between the TMMS-24 and other relevant psychological variables in the Peruvian context, such as mental health, psychological well-being, academic performance, and social adjustment.

The ramifications derived from these findings are both contextually grounded and strategically significant for educational and mental health interventions within the Peruvian university system. The TMMS-24 emerges as a diagnostically valuable instrument for identifying students’ emotional competencies, therefore, enabling the implementation of targeted psychoeducational initiatives aimed at enhancing emotional regulation and psychological resilience. Accordingly, the integration of the TMMS-24 into student guidance and development frameworks offers a promising avenue for the design of emotionally attuned training programs, which may, in fact, foster improved mental health outcomes and bolster academic performance among university students in Peru.

In conclusion, the results of the present study provide strong evidence supporting the sound psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the TMMS-24 for use with Peruvian university students. These findings contribute to the literature on EI assessment in diverse cultural contexts and offer a valid and reliable tool for future psychological research, including cross-cultural studies and the evaluation of emotional education programs in Peru.