Boredom is a notable challenge in educational settings, marked by a lack of interest, mental disengagement, and feelings of monotony (Sharp et al., 2017). Although common, it has received less attention in educational research compared to emotions like anxiety, motivation, and enjoyment (Pawlak et al., 2020; Tze et al., 2016). Its effects are significant, including reduced motivation, lower academic performance, and higher dropout rates (Eastwood et al., 2012; Pekrun et al., 2010).

In L2 learning, boredom is often understood through its roots in learners’ perceptions. For instance, Control-Value Theory (Pekrun, 2006) suggests boredom emerges when students perceive a lack of control over their learning or find tasks lacking value, which leads to emotional disengagement. This perspective highlights boredom’s detrimental role in L2 learning, as it can undermine instructional effectiveness and impede language acquisition by blocking effective processing of new input (Krashen, 1982). Indeed, in L2 classrooms, the impact of boredom is particularly strong due to the sustained engagement language learning requires (Li et al., 2023). It hampers students’ ability to process and retain linguistic input (Nakamura et al., 2021), reducing their willingness to engage in practice. This limits opportunities for interaction and slows language development (Chen et al., 2022; Derakhshan and Fathi, 2025). Research further shows boredom predicts lower L2 achievement (Li and Wei, 2023) and leads to maladaptive coping strategies, such as avoidance, which obstruct progress (Solhi et al., 2023).

Several factors contribute to L2 boredom, reflecting an interplay of learner-internal and external elements. Key triggers include task characteristics like difficulty, lack of comprehension, or a mismatch with learner abilities (Nakamura et al., 2021; Pawlak et al., 2020). Both overly simple and excessively complex tasks can foster disengagement (Chapman, 2013; Li and Han, 2024).

The consequences of boredom extend beyond disengagement. It impairs cognitive processing, reducing attention to linguistic input and hindering retention of vocabulary and grammar (Chapman, 2013). Students experiencing frequent boredom may adopt avoidance behaviors, creating a cycle of disengagement that worsens learning challenges (Solhi et al., 2023). Addressing these consequences requires a multi-faceted approach that considers both student disposition and pedagogical strategies. To address this, educators need to design lessons that are engaging and appropriately challenging, incorporating diverse activities, student choice, and scaffolding to sustain interest (Zhang et al., 2022). A classroom environment that promotes active participation and values student contributions can also help reduce monotony and enhance the learning experience.

Grit, defined as perseverance and passion for long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007), is a key focus in educational research. Rooted in positive psychology, it emphasizes sustained effort and interest despite challenges (Credé, 2018; Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth and Quinn, 2009). Duckworth et al. (2007) identify two dimensions: perseverance of effort, reflecting commitment to tasks amid difficulties, and consistency of interest, indicating focus on goals despite distractions (Credé et al., 2017; Datu et al., 2017). Grit predicts academic success beyond traditional measures like IQ, as gritty individuals engage in deliberate practice essential for skill mastery (Duckworth and Quinn, 2009; Ericsson et al., 1993; Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014). This sustained dedication is critical in education, where long-term effort drives complex skill development.

In language learning, which demands prolonged effort and practice, grit is highly relevant (Teimouri et al., 2022). Learners with greater grit persist through difficulties, improving outcomes (Fathi et al., 2024; Wei et al., 2020). L2 grit adapts the general concept to language-specific challenges, capturing the perseverance and passion needed for proficiency (Demir, 2024; Teimouri et al., 2021; Teimouri et al., 2022). Research shows L2 grit predicts important outcomes, including language achievement (even in online contexts, often indirectly through positive emotions like enjoyment; Zhao et al., 2024) and vocabulary acquisition (Alamer, 2021). It also positively relates to key motivational variables such as motivational intensity (Sun et al., 2024) and willingness to communicate (WTC; Lee, 2022; Sun et al., 2024). Grittier learners tend to practice consistently, overcome obstacles, and reach higher proficiency (Teimouri et al., 2022).

L2 grit interacts with other psychological factors. For instance, it can moderate the link between anxiety and achievement (Zhao and Wang, 2023). It also supports effective boredom coping strategies (Solhi et al., 2023). Research increasingly suggests L2 grit relates negatively to boredom across different learning contexts, including online Chinese language learning (Zhao and Wang, 2024), likely because grittier students persevere through monotonous tasks and sustain progress (Pawlak et al., 2022; Zhao and Wang, 2023). Notably, L2 grit has been found to play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived foreign language teacher support and foreign language anxiety, suggesting that supportive teaching can foster grit, which in turn reduces anxiety (Liu et al., 2025b). Moreover, studies exploring diverse profiles of L2 grit, such as “great effort and interest,” reveal how different configurations of perseverance and passion can uniquely influence the relationship between foreign language anxiety and achievement (Liu et al., 2025a). Interestingly, recent studies suggest the “perseverance of effort” (PE) facet of L2 grit may be particularly crucial in predicting performance (e.g., speaking performance; Sun et al., 2024) and managing negative emotions in challenging contexts like online learning (Zhao and Wang, 2024), while the “consistency of interest” (CI) facet might exert its influence more indirectly on achievement through variables like WTC (Sun et al., 2024) or positive emotions (Zhao et al., 2024). The role of grit appears prominent in autonomous settings as well, fostering goal adherence despite challenges (Alamer, 2022; Jin, 2024).

Self-regulation is central to effective learning, involving processes where learners manage their educational experiences through cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational strategies. It includes setting goals, monitoring progress, self-assessing, and adjusting behaviors (Schunk and Zimmerman, 2023; Zimmerman, 2000). In academic settings, self-regulation is linked to higher achievement, persistence, and effective strategy use (Boekaerts and Cascallar, 2006; Greene, 2017; Zimmerman, 2002). Its role is especially critical in L2 acquisition, where learners face complex linguistic, cultural, and task-related challenges over time (Oxford, 2016; Rose et al., 2018; Seker, 2016).

Theoretical models provide insight into self-regulated learning. Zimmerman’s (2000) cyclical model, with forethought, performance, and self-reflection phases, underscores its dynamic nature. Pintrich (2000) integrates cognitive and motivational elements, highlighting metacognition, self-efficacy, and goal orientation. Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory emphasizes self-efficacy as a driver of self-regulatory behaviors. Applied to L2 learning, these models show how learners set language goals, choose strategies, track progress, and adapt to improve proficiency (Tsuda and Nakata, 2013), contributing to success in navigating linguistic and cultural complexities (Oxford, 2016; Rose et al., 2018; Seker, 2016).

Research confirms self-regulation’s positive impact on L2 outcomes (Derakhshan and Fathi, 2024). Self-regulated learners display greater motivation, better comprehension and retention, and adaptability to tasks (Sasaki et al., 2018). They use techniques like goal setting, organizing study time, seeking feedback, and applying metacognitive skills to refine their learning (Seker, 2016). Studies show self-regulation boosts L2 proficiency, with these learners outperforming peers in tests and communication (Teng and Zhang, 2022). It also mediates the link between motivation and performance, enhancing proficiency through self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation (Nitta and Baba, 2015; Zimmerman and Kitsantas, 2014).

Investigations reveal specific self-regulation strategies aiding L2 success. Oxford (2016) notes that self-regulated learners excel at tailoring strategies to their needs and styles. Teng and Zhang (2022) demonstrate that self-regulation skills transfer across domains, speeding L2 progress. Research with Japanese EFL students shows that goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring improve proficiency and satisfaction (Tsuda and Nakata, 2013). Beyond individual traits, the learning environment matters. Supportive settings fostering autonomy, feedback, and planning enhance self-regulation (Torres, 2013), as do digital tools for self-monitoring and assessment (Sasaki et al., 2018).

In conclusion, self-regulation is vital for L2 learning, enabling learners to control their progress, achieve goals, and adapt to challenges. Theoretical models clarify its cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational components, while research highlights its role in enhancing outcomes. Promoting self-regulated strategies and supportive environments helps learners become autonomous, motivated, and proficient in their target language. Building on these frameworks, particularly the cyclical nature of self-regulation involving planning, monitoring, and reflection (Zimmerman, 2000) and the importance of self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1986), this study conceptualizes self-regulation as a potential mechanism. It is hypothesized that the capacity for effective self-regulation allows learners to translate dispositional traits like mindfulness and grit into specific actions—such as employing appropriate learning strategies, maintaining focus, and managing effort—that directly counteract feelings of boredom during language study.

Mindfulness, defined as present-moment awareness with a non-judgmental attitude, is increasingly recognized in educational research for improving learning and well-being (Kabat-Zinn, 2015; Khoury et al., 2013; Shapiro et al., 2006). Originating from Buddhist traditions and adapted by Kabat-Zinn (2003), it is integrated into interventions targeting cognitive and psychological outcomes (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). In education, mindfulness enhances academic performance, emotional regulation, and student well-being (Fathi et al., 2023; Zeilhofer and Sasao, 2022).

Research highlights mindfulness’s impact on cognitive functions vital for learning, such as attention, memory, and executive control. It improves these by sharpening focus and reducing cognitive load (Zeilhofer and Sasao, 2022). Zeilhofer (2023) found that college students practicing mindfulness showed better short-term vocabulary retention in foreign language contexts, indicating its role in boosting focus and efficiency. Mindfulness also supports academic performance through emotional regulation, helping students manage stress and anxiety that hinder cognition (Ghanizadeh et al., 2019; Morgan and Katz, 2021). Students practicing mindfulness handle stressors effectively, maintaining clarity and improving performance on tasks requiring sustained attention (Wu and Zhao, 2023).

Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs), like Kabat-Zinn’s (2003) Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), reduce stress and anxiety, enhancing academic outcomes (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Morgan and Katz, 2021). Morgan and Katz (2021) showed in a randomized trial that students in a mindfulness program had lower foreign language anxiety and greater language skill gains than controls, underscoring MBIs’ value in language education.

In EFL settings, mindfulness boosts academic buoyancy, grit, and reduces boredom, aiding engagement and persistence in language learning (Cheng, 2023; Fathi et al., 2023; Mohammad Hosseini et al., 2023). It lowers anxiety and boredom, enhances creativity, and makes learning more enjoyable. By fostering non-judgmental awareness, mindfulness keeps students engaged during challenging tasks, improving language acquisition. It also mediates academic demands, helping students in high-stress settings avoid burnout and sustain engagement (Wu and Zhao, 2023).

Overall, mindfulness enhances cognitive functions, reduces anxiety, and increases engagement, all critical for language learning success (Kabat-Zinn, 2015; Zeilhofer and Sasao, 2022). As research explores its mechanisms, mindfulness is poised to become a key educational strategy for improving performance and well-being.

This study examines the relationships among mindfulness, grit, self-regulation, and L2 boredom in Chinese undergraduate English majors, using a mixed-methods approach to understand how these constructs shape L2 classroom experiences. The selection of mindfulness, grit, and self-regulation as predictors is firmly grounded in contemporary theories emphasizing learner agency and the active management of challenging academic experiences, a perspective particularly salient in L2 learning where boredom frequently arises.

Our theoretical foundation draws primarily from Pekrun’s (2006) Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions, which suggests boredom arises from a perceived lack of control or value in tasks. We hypothesize that mindfulness, grit, and self-regulation act as complementary internal resources learners use to directly counter these boredom triggers. For example, mindfulness (Kabat-Zinn, 2015; Shapiro et al., 2006) enhances attentional control and adaptive emotional appraisals, helping learners re-engage with uninteresting tasks. Grit (Duckworth et al., 2007) provides the passion and perseverance needed to pursue long-term goals despite immediate monotony, addressing the value component of boredom. Self-regulation (Zimmerman, 2000; Boekaerts and Cascallar, 2006) offers practical strategies to exert control, manage difficulties, and actively create or perceive value in learning.

Our hypothesized model (see Figure 1) proposes that mindfulness and grit will negatively predict L2 boredom, with self-regulation mediating these relationships. Examining these constructs collectively allows for a comprehensive understanding of their relative importance and potential interplay in mitigating L2 boredom. Self-regulation is conceptualized as a key mechanism through which the more dispositional qualities of mindfulness and grit are translated into concrete, boredom-reducing actions.

This mixed-methods study is guided by the following research questions:

Based on the theoretical framework and prior research, this study proposes the following hypotheses for the quantitative phase:

The quantitative phase of this study tests this proposed model, drawing on principles from educational psychology and language learning research. It investigates the direct effects of mindfulness and grit on L2 boredom, expecting mindfulness to reduce boredom by enhancing cognitive and emotional regulation (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Zeilhofer and Sasao, 2022), and grit to lower boredom through fostering persistence and sustained motivation (Duckworth et al., 2007; Teimouri et al., 2022). Crucially, this phase also explores whether self-regulation mediates these relationships, testing the hypothesis that mindful and gritty students use self-regulatory strategies—like goal setting and self-monitoring—to mitigate boredom (Oxford, 2016; Zimmerman, 2000). Furthermore, we assess if these patterns remain consistent across different demographic groups, including gender and years of English learning experience.

The qualitative phase, conducted through focus group discussions, offers deeper insight into students’ lived perceptions of the interplay among mindfulness, grit, self-regulation, and L2 boredom in their English language learning. This phase examines how students practically apply these constructs to manage boredom, how grit supports persistence, and how the classroom environment and teaching methods influence engagement. By blending quantitative and qualitative methods, this study robustly addresses existing literature gaps, exploring both statistical relationships and contextual influences on classroom boredom. This comprehensive approach ensures our findings advance theoretical knowledge of psychological factors in L2 boredom and provide practically informed guidance for educators.

The study involved 516 undergraduate English majors from various universities in Mainland China. Participants were chosen through a multistage random sampling process to ensure diversity and representativeness. Initially, 20 universities offering English major programs were randomly selected from a comprehensive list using a random number generator. These universities were spread across six provinces to reflect a broad geographical representation.

Within each selected university, a stratified random sampling method was employed based on academic year (freshman to senior) to ensure that students at different levels of their academic journey were included. Random sampling within each group was conducted using software like SPSS, resulting in a diverse range of students with varying levels of exposure to English language learning. The participants ranged from 18 to 24 years old, with an average age of 20.7 years (SD = 1.4). The gender distribution was 57% female (294 participants) and 43% male (222 participants), reflecting the typical gender composition in English major programs in China. All participants had studied English as a foreign language for about 10 years (SD = 2.1), beginning in middle school. Their English proficiency was generally at an intermediate level, verified through standardized English test scores (e.g., CET-4), indicating the sample was relatively comparable in terms of baseline language skills for investigating the target psychological variables.

In addition to the quantitative sample, the qualitative phase involved focus groups with a subset of participants to gain deeper insights into their experiences. Forty students were selected through purposive sampling from the main study sample to ensure diverse representation based on gender, academic year, and English proficiency. These participants provided richer, context-specific data to complement the quantitative findings.

Data collection for the quantitative phase occurred in a classroom setting, with participants completing questionnaires during class hours under supervision. Prior to participation, all students were informed about the study’s purpose, voluntary nature, and confidentiality assurances. Informed consent was obtained in accordance with ethical guidelines. The research protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Yulin Normal University, ensuring adherence to ethical standards for research involving human participants.

To assess the key constructs of mindfulness, grit, self-regulation, and L2 boredom, a series of well-established psychometric instruments were employed. Each was selected based on demonstrated reliability and validity in similar research contexts, particularly within Chinese educational settings. All instruments were administered in their original English versions, as the participants, being English majors, were proficient enough to comprehend the items without translation.

Mindfulness was measured using the 15-item Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ-15; Baer et al., 2012). This scale captures the multifaceted nature of mindfulness (including observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging, and non-reactivity) using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never or very rarely true to 5 = very often or always true), where higher scores indicate greater mindfulness. In this study, the FFMQ-15 demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.82) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) indicated good model fit (χ²/df = 2.31, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.052 [90% CI = 0.045, 0.060], SRMR = 0.034).

Self-regulation was assessed with the 31-item Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SSRQ; Carey et al., 2004), covering dimensions such as goal setting, planning, self-monitoring, and perseverance. Participants responded on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), with higher scores reflecting stronger self-regulatory abilities. The SSRQ exhibited excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.92) and good CFA model fit in this sample (χ²/df = 2.45, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.056 [90% CI = 0.048, 0.064], SRMR = 0.036).

L2 boredom was measured using the 8-item Foreign Language Classroom Boredom Subscale (FLCBS), part of the Foreign Language Learning Boredom Scale (FLLBS; Li et al., 2023). This subscale assesses boredom experienced during English classes (e.g., “I am only physically in the classroom, while my mind is wandering outside the English class”) on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The FLCBS showed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.93) and satisfactory CFA model fit (χ²/df = 1.98, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.048 [90% CI = 0.041, 0.056], SRMR = 0.032).

L2 grit was measured using a 10-item scale adapted from Lee (2020) that captures perseverance of effort and consistency of interest regarding long-term English learning goals. Responses were given on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “not like me at all” to 5 = “very much like me”). The scale yielded high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.89). Additionally, CFA results supported its construct validity with good model fit (χ²/df = 2.19, CFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.051 [90% CI = 0.044, 0.059], SRMR = 0.035) and significant factor loadings ranging from 0.65 to 0.85.

For the qualitative phase, focus group discussions explored participants’ experiences with these constructs. Forty students were purposefully selected from the main sample to ensure diversity based on gender, academic year, and English proficiency, aiming to capture a wide range of perspectives. Four focus group sessions, each with 10 participants, were conducted in a quiet campus setting and lasted approximately 60 min to foster comfortable and open discussion.

A semi-structured interview guide directed the focus groups, featuring questions designed to elicit participants’ strategies for managing boredom and maintaining engagement in English classes (e.g., “Can you describe how you cope with boredom in your English classes?”). This approach complemented the quantitative findings by exploring the constructs in greater depth. With participants’ consent, discussions were audio-recorded and later transcribed verbatim for thematic analysis.

Data collection for the quantitative phase was conducted over 6 weeks during the spring semester, avoiding periods with major exams to minimize external stressors that could affect responses. Sessions were scheduled during regular class hours to optimize student alertness. The environment was set up to ensure privacy and minimize disruptions, with participants seated apart and instructed to focus solely on the questionnaires.

All questionnaires were completed in a single 40-min session. To maintain participant concentration and data quality, instructions were provided before each questionnaire. A hybrid data collection approach was used, offering both online and paper formats. Preliminary analysis indicated no significant differences in responses between formats, ensuring consistency in data collection. Focus group sessions were held separately from the quantitative data collection. A trained moderator facilitated each session using the semi-structured interview guide. Audio recordings were securely stored, and confidentiality was maintained throughout the process.

This study used a mixed methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative techniques to examine relationships among mindfulness, grit, self-regulation, and L2 boredom. Quantitative analysis started with data screening in SPSS version 26, generating descriptive statistics. Missing values (<5% per variable) were addressed using the Expectation-Maximization algorithm (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2019). Outliers, detected via Mahalanobis distance, were removed if extreme and unjustifiable to maintain data integrity. Normality was verified with skewness and kurtosis statistics, all within acceptable ranges (| <skewness> | <2, | <kurtosis> | <7), confirming suitability for SEM (West, 1995).

Descriptive statistics (M, SD, Pearson correlations) outlined sample traits and variable relationships. Cronbach’s alpha assessed internal consistency, with all scales exceeding 0.70, indicating reliability (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). SEM in AMOS version 24 validated the measurement model via Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), testing observed variables against latent constructs. Fit indices—χ², CFI, TLI, RMSEA, and SRMR—showed good fit (CFI and TLI > 0.90, RMSEA and SRMR < 0.08) (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Factor loadings, all significant and above 0.50, supported convergent validity.

The structural model tested hypothesized relationships, fitting well and revealing mindfulness and self-regulation as strong negative predictors of L2 boredom. Grit also negatively related to boredom, though less strongly, suggesting mindfulness and self-regulation play larger roles in reducing it. Mediation analysis, using the bootstrap method with 5,000 resamples (Preacher and Hayes, 2008), confirmed that self-regulation partially mediates the relationships between both mindfulness and L2 boredom, and grit and L2 boredom, underscoring its role as a key mechanism. Multi-group analysis across gender and years of English learning found no significant differences, indicating consistent relationships across subgroups (Cheung and Rensvold, 2002).

Qualitative analysis involved thematic analysis of focus group data, guided by Braun and Clarke (2006), to explore students’ experiences with these constructs. Audio-recorded discussions were transcribed, checked for accuracy, coded for recurring ideas, and categorized into themes reflecting participants’ views, deepening insight into real learning contexts.

Integrating quantitative and qualitative findings enriched the analysis. Qualitative data provided context for quantitative results, showing how students use mindfulness and self-regulation to manage boredom in L2 learning. This mixed methods design offered a thorough examination of the relationships, with triangulation enhancing validity and depth.

The focus group discussions provided rich, contextualized insights into students’ lived experiences of L2 boredom, mindfulness, grit, and self-regulation in English language learning. These qualitative data directly address Research Question 3 – How do students experience the interplay of these constructs in English language learning? – and offer a deeper understanding that complements the quantitative findings by highlighting the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions of their learning process. The thematic analysis revealed three core areas: the multifaceted nature of L2 boredom, the perceived role of individual psychological resources (mindfulness, grit, self-regulation) in managing it, and the influence of the teacher and classroom environment.