With more than 720,000 deaths a year, suicide has become the third leading cause of death among young people, posing a global public health challenge (Hughes et al., 2023). Given the prominence of emotional disorders and mental distress in suicide attempts and premature deaths resulting from suicide, mental health problems among young people urgently need to be addressed and addressed to reduce the risk of suicide (Casas-Muñoz et al., 2024; Lawrence et al., 2021). Studies have shown that social support influences youth’s willingness to seek both informal and professional help, while also reducing reliance on extreme self-reliance, which is considered a barrier to accessing mental health support (Ishikawa et al., 2023). At the same time, young people, those who are overly concerned with social standards and expectations, can be hard on themselves, see their shortcomings, and feel worthless, resulting in low self-esteem, this exacerbates the fear of being socially marginalized and triggers suicidal thoughts and behaviors (Blader, 2018). Therefore, exploring young people’s social support and self-esteem can help identify their risk of mental health crises and target interventions.

Social support refers to the emotional or tangible services provided by communities, social networks, trusted family members, and partners. It primarily includes tangible support, such as receiving material assistance or direct services from others, and perceived support, which reflects an individual’s emotional experience of respect, understanding, and support (Cullen, 1994). Adequate social support enhances resilience to stress, which reduces the risk of psychological disorders, while unstoppable anxiety may occur when an individual’s stress buffer is challenged by a lack of social support (Grey et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2024). A recent meta-analysis indicated that higher levels of perceived social support and self-related traits such as self-esteem and self-efficacy were significantly associated with lower risks of depression and anxiety among adolescents and young adults (Yeo et al., 2023). Restrepo et al.’s survey of 350 college students also found that comprehending social support as a protective factor can help reduce suicidal behavior in those who are victims of interpersonal trauma (Restrepo and Spokas, 2023). Thus, understanding the level of social support among young people, sensitively identifying those who lack it, and targeting improvement measures can promote mental health and enhance their happiness and well-being.

Self-esteem is the degree to which a person cherishes, values, recognizes, or likes himself. It comes from an individual’s evaluation of himself, this includes the way you see yourself, respect for yourself, and appreciation for your value in a particular area (Doré, 2017). Self-esteem consists of two parts: implicit self-esteem, which is defined as a relatively automatic, pre-conscious, emotion-related self-assessment, and explicit self-esteem, which is rooted in rational, conscious self-assessment that may be influenced by social expectations (Buhrmester et al., 2011). Several studies have provided strong evidence for a relationship between self-esteem and mental health. A high level of self-esteem is a positive assessment of one’s overall self and a cornerstone of mental health, while a low level of self-esteem can lead to negative outcomes such as mental illness due to persistent negative self-perceptions (Cai et al., 2024). A study of young people found that self-esteem, self-compassion, self-awareness, self-efficacy, and self-regulation were negative predictors of anxiety levels, and low self-esteem leads to higher depression (Yeo et al., 2023). Recent longitudinal studies have further demonstrated a reciprocal association between self-esteem and perceived social support among adolescents, suggesting that both constructs may reinforce one another over time (Marshall et al., 2014). This reciprocal link is particularly relevant for vulnerable youth populations, where social support from peers, caregivers, or institutional staff has been found to play a crucial role in fostering adolescents’ self-worth and emotional well-being (Singstad et al., 2021). In addition, self-esteem is thought to influence self-reflection and the formation of positive perceptions of oneself, which can help young people cope with life challenges and stressors and manage emotional distress (Yeo et al., 2023).

Sociometrics theory suggests that self-esteem is part of a psychological system that stems from monitoring the interpersonal value of the self and is closely related to social support (Leary, 2005). Don et al.’s study found that individuals with low self-esteem may attempt to protect themselves from social exclusion by indirectly seeking support from their intimate partners; however, these behaviors may trigger negative partner support, further exacerbating their deficiency (Don et al., 2019). In contrast, according to Poudel et al.’s observations of adolescents, higher levels of perceived social support positively predicted their self-esteem and self-evaluation, and self-esteem played a key role in social support and mental health (Poudel et al., 2020). Beyond this, there appears to be a more complex relationship between social support and self-esteem. After observing 961 adolescents over time, Marshall et al. found that self-esteem, which refers to evaluations of oneself, predicted individuals’ perceptions of the quality of social support and the size of their support networks (Marshall et al., 2014).

The present study is grounded in the Sociometer Theory, which posits that self-esteem functions as a psychological monitor of one’s social belonging and relational value (Leary, 2005). This framework provides a useful basis for understanding how perceived social support—particularly the sense of being valued and cared for by others—may influence and be influenced by self-esteem. In addition, prior longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have established a reciprocal association between these two constructs among youth, supporting the rationale for examining them together using a person-centered approach (Marshall et al., 2014; Poudel et al., 2020).

Previously, most research on perceptions of social support has focused on testing the psychometric properties of questionnaires and using variable-centered methods (e.g., correlation analyses, and regression analyses; Lin et al., 2022; Steine et al., 2020; He et al., 2023). These analyses take full account of the relationships between variables and assume that subjects share the same characteristics, ignoring the unique patterns that may exist across the different dimensions of their perceptions of social support (Chouhy, 2019). In contrast, individual-centered approaches can identify potential population subgroups based on characteristics observed from multiple dimensions. Latent profile analysis (LPA) is one such person-centered research method that can explore population heterogeneity by clustering data with continuous explicit variables (Nylund et al., 2007). Previously, LPA has been useful in identifying characteristics of perceived social support in specific populations. A study by Mai et al. revealed that during covid-19, four types of social support existed among students aged 15–25 years old, namely, “Extremely Low Perceived Social Support Groups (ELPSSG),” “Low Perceived Social Support Group (LPSSG), Medium Perceived Social Support Group (MPSSG) and High Perceived Social Support Group (HPSSG; Mai et al., 2021). At the same time, Bai also identified four social support profiles among the 1,286 parents, namely “low,” “medium,” “high” and “Divergent” (Bai et al., 2023). Their study revealed the possibility of the existence of diverse categorizations of comprehension social support in groups, and therefore, we hypothesized 1: There are different profiles of comprehension social support in youth groups. And, given the close correlation between perceived social support and self-esteem, we propose Hypothesis 2: Young people’s level of self-esteem has a reciprocal positive correlation with the configuration of the profile of comprehending social support.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the current study is the first effort to explore potential characteristics of perceived social support in a youth population through person-centered analyses. As shown in Hypothesis 1, there are different characteristics of perceived social support among young people and the LPA results support a 3-character model labeled as follows: ‘High Social support’, ‘High Friend Support with Medium Social Support’, and “Low Social Support.” At the same time, Hypothesis 2 was verified, and there was a positive correlation between the profile of perceived social support and self-esteem.

This study successfully identified three different profiles of perceived social support among 623 individuals. Profile 1, “High Social Support,” was the largest subgroup, with 347 participants, or 55.7% of the total. Profile 2, characterized as “High Friend Support and Medium Social Support,” was the second largest group, consisting of 214 participants, or 34.35% of the total. Profile 3 is the smallest group, with 62 members, accounting for only 9.95% of the total. In comparing the profiles obtained in the studies of Mai et al. (2021) and Bai et al. (2023) with ours, we found some similarities. In both studies, the same as our findings were identified, two profiles showed overall high and low performance in comprehension of social support.

However, we failed to identify the profile characterized by very low social support, as found by Mai et al. among students in COVID administration. Moreover, compared to Mai and Bai’s study, the percentage of participants with “Low Social Support” in this program was lower, while the “High Social Support” group had a more positive response. This may be attributed to the National Health Commission of China’s (NHC) transition to a COVID-19 management strategy, which allowed young people to gradually resume offline interactions with family and friends, thereby enhancing their perception of real-life social support (Ji et al., 2022). Meshi et al. demonstrated that perceived social support from face-to-face interactions reduced the risk of problematic social media use, compared to social support obtained through social media platforms. The risk of problematic social media use is associated with reduced depression, anxiety, and social isolation, with a mental health-promoting effect (Meshi and Ellithorpe, 2021). In addition to this, we identified profile 2, characterized by high friend support and moderate social support, which seems to be a subgroup-specific to young people. As young adults, those who left their hometowns for school or job search experienced dramatic changes in their social networks, which may have affected their perceptions of social support. Lee et al. found that support from friends, but not from family, helped buffer college students from the link between perceived stress and loneliness. And, thanks to the longevity and stability of friendships, support from friends also performed better than support provided by romantic partners in buffering young people from the challenges of facing stress (Lee and Goldstein, 2016). Meanwhile, through an emotional support experiment and fMRI measurements with 71 participants, Morese et al. validated the positive effects of support from friends in reducing negative emotions (Morese et al., 2019). In summary, young people should increase face-to-face interactions with family and friends to enhance comprehension of social support and promote mental health. Moreover, the special role of friends in young people’s social support should be emphasized more, especially among those who have left home and parents.

Based on the demographic specificity of each profile, we find that young people in the service sector, widowed, with three or more children, and with graduate degrees appear to have a poorer profile of perceived social support. First, young people working in the service industry showed frail perceived social support. Because service industry workers are frequently involved in social interactions with consumers, they have to face challenges from emotional labor (Zapf and Holz, 2006). Sora et al.’s study noted that work-related emotional dysregulation may affect employees’ job satisfaction and willingness to leave their jobs, and that support from co-workers may help to regulate their negative feelings about their jobs, whereas support from the organization did not show the same effect (Sora and Vera, 2020). However, if young people and/or their coworkers lack emotional maturity and social competence, navigating social support can be limited or even trigger work-related anger interpersonal difficulties, and hostility with others, which can further exacerbate impairments in navigating social support (Fitzgerald et al., 2003). However, as only one participant in our sample identified as widowed, this finding should be interpreted with caution. The result may not be representative of the broader population of bereaved young individuals and requires further validation in future studies. Romantic partners are an important source of social support, and with the loss of a spouse and the special emotional support they provide, bereaved individuals experience serious challenges from feelings of loneliness. The emotional and social support gained through increased interactions with children, friends, and relatives does not fully buffer the bereaved from stress (Freak-Poli et al., 2022). This may explain the poorer self-assessment of comprehending social support among young people who have lost a romantic partner. Third, those with no children or only 1 child had better performance in navigating social support compared to those who had 3 or more children. Parents bear a great deal of caregiving stress during the child-rearing process. At this time, having access to a social support network of family members or peers can help increase their perception of social support and ease their emotional burden (O'Neill et al., 2019). However, when their support needs in child care exceed the affordability of their social support network, their perceived social support is thwarted and their happiness and well-being, as well as that of their children, are impacted (Geweniger et al., 2024). Even if this inadequate social support may be relative. Finally, young adults with graduate degrees appear to exhibit lower perceived social support than their peers with only a middle or high school degree. High academic achievers typically face more expectations and demands from themselves and others, which may trigger their perfectionism (Schilder et al., 2021). Dobos et al. suggest that the potential of perfectionism in reinforcing the pressures of social prescriptions on young people, as well as the perfectionist’s tendency to be socially disconnected and hostile, may influence the negative correlation between perceived social support and perfectionism (Dobos et al., 2021). This also explains the manifestation of impoverishment in comprehending social support among highly educated young people. In summary, the perceived social support status of young people who are in the service sector, widowed, have three or more children and have high academic achievement such as a graduate degree deserves more attention and active assistance.

Consistent with previous findings, there is a positive correlation between perceived social support and self-esteem (Singstad et al., 2021; Yuan et al., 2022), and we argue that there is a reciprocal relationship between the two, rather than a unilateral effect of either variable on the other. Those who excel in self-esteem are more likely to be assigned to configurations of high perceived social support. Although the ability to receive and perceive social support is innate, an individual’s appreciation of their social support is influenced by the environment in which they were raised (Taylor, 2020). Brockner suggests that self-esteem is related to an individual’s behavioral plasticity and that individuals with low self-esteem are more susceptible to their social environments than those with high self-esteem, which makes them more sensitive to the evaluations and social feedback of others and affects their social relationships (Brockner, 1988). Therefore, if young people grow up with a lack of self-confidence, it is difficult for them to form rich and close social relationships, which also determines their weakness in comprehending social support. At the same time, comprehending social support is also an important factor that affects the level of self-esteem of an individual. The sociometrics theory states that the pursuit of a positive evaluation of the value of one’s interpersonal relationships is an important source of self-esteem (Leary, 2005). Therefore, the status of social relationships and social support will influence an individual’s judgment of his or her level of self-esteem. Lu et al. explained the positive effect of perceived social support on self-esteem from the perspective of cognitive neuroscience by measuring the gray matter volume of the hippocampus and amygdala of 243 young people (Lu et al., 2023). Meanwhile, Kazi also found that social support consisting of emotional and tangible support can help improve self-esteem among married women in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Overall, there is a reciprocal positive relationship between perceived social support and self-esteem (Kazi, 2021). Given the impact of perceived social support and self-esteem on young people’s mental health, we believe that proactive assessment and targeted provision of measures to maintain young people’s self-esteem and perceived social support are necessary (Karaca et al., 2019).

These findings offer meaningful implications for mental health interventions targeting young populations. For instance, young adults in the service sector or those experiencing bereavement or caregiving stress may benefit from support systems that enhance their perceived relational value. Previous research has demonstrated that emotional and tangible support are significant predictors of higher self-esteem (Kazi, 2021), and that interventions enhancing self-esteem and perceived support are protective factors for mental health in young adults (Karaca et al., 2019). School-based and workplace-based mental health programs can therefore incorporate self-esteem enhancement modules alongside social support development strategies. Additionally, our findings suggest that tailored interventions should consider subgroup-specific vulnerabilities—such as social withdrawal among widowed youth or perfectionistic stress among highly educated individuals—to more effectively foster psychological resilience and well-being.

Because we focused primarily on the relationship between perceived social support profiles and self-esteem among young people, the representativeness and generalizability of the sample were limited, so the results of this study may not apply to groups other than youth. Additionally, the number of participants in specific subgroups, such as widowed individuals, was extremely small, limiting the generalizability of those subgroup-related findings. In addition, the project uses questionnaires and lacks reports on the real experiences of youth groups in perceived social support and their views on allocation. In the follow-up work, we will further explore and improve the deficiencies.

Based on the reports of 623 young participants, this study identified a total of three configurations of perceived social support, which were characterized as “high Social Support,” “High Friend Support with Moderate Social Support,” and “Low Social Support.” Overall, the majority of young people exhibit moderate to high levels of perceived social support, however, Groups with low perceived social support should receive targeted interventions, as their diminished support levels may severely compromise both physical and mental health. In addition, increased attention should be paid to young people who are in the service sector, who are widowed, who have three or more children, and who have high levels of academic achievement, as they are more likely to lack social support. Finally, given the strong positive correlation between self-esteem and perceived social support, focusing on both and targeting improvement measures is the best option for safeguarding the mental health of young people.