The General Learning Model highlights the role of media content in shaping behavior and suggests that PVG exposure can increase prosocial behavior while reducing antisocial tendencies (Greitemeyer, 2011). According to the General Learning Model, media exposure exerts both immediate (short-term) and long-term effects, depending on the frequency and duration of exposure to similar stimuli (Sarmet and Pilati, 2016). Short-term effects are primarily driven by mechanisms such as priming, arousal, and imitation, whereas long-term effects stem from observational learning, as well as the activation and desensitization of emotional processes (Huesmann, 2007). Supporting this framework, studies have demonstrated that even brief exposure to PVGs can increase prosocial thought accessibility in both children and adults (Greitemeyer and Osswald, 2011; Li and Zhang, 2022).

In relation to aggressive behavior, review studies indicate that while violent video games tend to increase aggression and hinder prosocial outcomes, PVGs have the opposite effect, reducing aggression (Greitemeyer and Mügge, 2014, 2022). Empirical studies further support these findings, showing that PVG exposure reduces harmful behavior in children aged 9–14 years (Saleem et al., 2012), and diminishes hostile expectation bias and antisocial thought accessibility in university students (Greitemeyer and Osswald, 2009). While research has demonstrated the positive impact of PVGs on preschoolers’ prosocial behavior (e.g., Li and Zhang, 2022; Li et al., 2023; Shoshani, 2023), their potential effect on reducing aggression in preschoolers remains uncertain, highlighting the need for further research in this area.

To deepen our understanding of how PVGs influence children’s aggression, it is important to integrate broader socio-emotional constructs into the theoretical framework. In particular, empathy has been widely identified as a key mechanism underlying these effects, as it is strongly associated with both prosocial behavior and the perception of aggression severity (Dou and Zhang, 2025; Gan et al., 2024; Yin and Wang, 2023). PVGs may promote empathy by encouraging perspective-taking and prosocial decision-making, which in turn could reduce children’s aggressive tendencies (Carmona-Cardona et al., 2024; Li and van Berlo, 2025; Yin and Wang, 2023). Moreover, recent studies suggest that prosocial behaviors are associated not only with reduced aggression but also with lower risks of addictive and dysfunctional behaviors (Esparza-Reig et al., 2021; Kasap et al., 2023), positioning these skills as protective factors that support healthy digital engagement. Additionally, resilience and social support have been found to foster the development of prosociality during childhood and adolescence, serving as buffers against emotional and behavioral problems (Esparza-Reig et al., 2022; Luo et al., 2023). Acknowledging their roles provides a more integrative perspective on how social resources interact with game content to influence developmental outcomes. Moreover, as digital environments become increasingly complex, especially for older children and adolescents, recent studies on online prosocial behavior and digital altruism suggest that prosocial tendencies can extend into virtual spaces (Li, 2024; Pastor et al., 2024). These findings offer a valuable direction for future research exploring how PVGs may foster positive social behavior in more interactive digital contexts.

Research suggests that video game exposure influences aggression through aggressive cognition and aggressive affect (Anderson and Bushman, 2001; Greitemeyer et al., 2012; Greitemeyer and Osswald, 2009). However, the role of aggressive motivation in this process remains less explored. Aggressive motivation—the impulse to harm oneself or others—can be categorized into revenge motivation (harm-driven, emotion-based) and instrumental motivation (goal-oriented, influence-driven) (Lindsay and Anderson, 2000; Lozovska and Gudaitë, 2013). Revenge motivation, also termed hostile aggression, refers to impulsive, emotionally driven behavior, whereas instrumental aggression is calculated, incentive-driven behavior used as a means to an end (e.g., coercion or extortion) (Anderson and Murphy, 2003; Kruglanski et al., 2023).

Previous research highlights the central role of motivation in influencing children’s aggressive behavior (Feshbach, 1964; Harmon-Jones and Schutter, 2022). For instance, revenge motivation has been found to mediate the link between violent video games and aggression (Anderson and Murphy, 2003). According to the General Learning Model, video game features influence a player’s internal state, including motivation, which in turn shapes behavior to align with the game’s content (Sarmet and Pilati, 2016). While motivation is a key factor in the relationship between video game play and aggression, it remains unclear whether aggressive motivation mediates the reduction of aggression through PVG play.

While research supports the potential of PVGs in reducing children’s aggression, their effectiveness may vary based on individual characteristics such as gender and age. Studies consistently indicate that girls exhibit lower overall levels of aggression than boys (e.g., Lansford et al., 2012; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1980; Ticusan, 2014). However, the expression of aggression differs between genders, with boys more likely to engage in physical aggression, such as hitting, while girls tend to display higher levels of relational aggression, such as social exclusion (Björkqvist, 2018; Lansford et al., 2012; Nivette et al., 2020). In addition, gender differences in video game consumption patterns have also been documented: boys generally spend more time on video games and prefer competitive or action-oriented genres, whereas girls may be more drawn to games with prosocial or narrative content (Leonhardt and Overå, 2021; Veltri et al., 2014). Accordingly, research suggests that boys experience greater positive emotional responses during competitive rather than cooperative play (Kivikangas et al., 2014). In contrast, girls appear to be more emotionally responsive to prosocial content in video games (Li et al., 2023). Considering gender-based differences in both aggression expression and game engagement, the associations between PVG play and aggression—as well as the underlying mediating mechanisms—may differ between boys and girls.

On the other hand, age might be a crucial factor shaping children’s response to PVGs. Research suggests that as children grow older, their cognitive and moral development advances, enabling them to better recognize the negative consequences of aggression, which in turn leads to a decline in aggressive behavior (Erfani et al., 2010; Kokko et al., 2006; Underwood et al., 2009). However, early aggression can hinder social development and lead to relationship difficulties and social isolation (Ladd and Troop-Gordon, 2003), highlighting the need for early interventions. Given these developmental differences, it remains unclear whether girls and older children benefit more from PVGs in reducing aggression through decreased aggressive motivation compared to boys and younger children.

Existing research on video game effects on children’s aggression reveals several gaps that warrant further investigation. First, while prior studies have demonstrated that PVGs can reduce aggression in school-aged children, college students, and adults (Gentile et al., 2009; Greitemeyer and Osswald, 2009), little is known about their effects on preschool-aged children. Given the developmental differences between preschoolers and older children, it remains unclear whether the aggression-reducing effects of PVGs extend to this younger age group. Second, research has established that aggressive motivation mediates the relationship between violent video games and aggression (Anderson and Murphy, 2003). However, there is limited understanding of how aggressive motivation operates in the context of PVGs. Third, gender differences in aggression are well-documented, with boys exhibiting higher overall levels of aggression, while girls tend to be more responsive to prosocial content in video games (Lansford et al., 2012; Li and Zhang, 2022). However, it remains unclear whether the associations between PVG exposure and aggression differs between boys and girls, particularly in terms of aggressive motivation as a mediating factor. Fourth, as children grow older, their cognitive and moral development advances, allowing them to better recognize the negative consequences of aggression, which in turn leads to a decline in aggressive behavior (Erfani et al., 2010; Kokko et al., 2006; Underwood et al., 2009). However, it is unclear whether older children’s aggression is more susceptible to the influence of PVGs compared to younger children. To address these gaps, this study examines whether PVG exposure reduces aggression in Chinese preschoolers who are relatively more aggressive, with a focus on the mediating role of aggressive motivation (Figure 1). Additionally, it explores whether these mediation effects vary by gender and age. Based on these gaps, this study seeks to explore the following research questions (RQs) and hypotheses (Hs):

RQ1: Does playing a PVG compared to a neutral video game reduce aggressive behavior in preschool children?

RQ2: Does aggressive motivation mediate the relationship between PVG play and aggressive behavior?

RQ3: Does the mediating effect of aggressive motivation differ between boys and girls?

RQ4: Does the mediating effect of aggressive motivation vary by age?

The present research utilized teacher nominations to identify aggressive children, a method previously validated for its reliability and precision in gauging children’s aggression (Huesmann et al., 1994). Each teacher was instructed to pinpoint the 10 most aggressive children within their class. To draw clear conclusions about age differences, we specifically selected children close to a certain age, namely within an age range of ± 2 months. We recruited 136 relatively aggressive children from two kindergartens in Chongqing, China. Four of these selected children declined to participate in the experiment. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 132 pre-schoolers aged between 4 and 6 years (50% girls, 50% boys; M_age = 5.0, SD = 0.82), who were randomly assigned to play prosocial or neutral video games individually for 15 min. Sixty-six pre-schoolers (girls = 33; N_{4–years–old} = 22, N_{5–years–old} = 22, N_{6–years–old} = 22) were randomly assigned to play the PVG, while the other 66 pre-schoolers (girls = 33; N_{4–years–old} = 22, N_{5–years–old} = 22, N_{6–years–olds} = 22) played the neutral video game. None of the participants had an intellectual disability.

Before the experiment, participants were informed that they could decline participation without any negative consequences during experiment process. Written informed consent was obtained from their parents or legal guardians, and the children also provided verbal assent. Participants were randomly assigned to play the PVG or neutral video game individually for 15 min. Afterward, they completed the CRT with the understanding that they would have no contact with their virtual opponents. Post-CRT, participants were debriefed about their aggressive motivation. All procedures were then explained, questions were answered, and participants were thanked. For children with limited literacy skills, verbal instructions were provided for the motivation questionnaire, supplemented by examples if necessary. Participants understood how to adjust noise intensity upon winning and the motivation questionnaire’s content. The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee, Faculty of Education, Northeast Normal University (20200601.02 and date of 1 June 2020).

Firstly, in order to know whether PVG play will influence children’s aggressive behavior (RQ1), we performed an independent samples t-test to compare the levels of aggressive behavior between the PVG and the control group. Next, we employed mediation models to investigate the potential mediating influence of aggressive motivation (RQ2) (Chen et al., 2005). Additionally, we explored the moderating effects of age and gender using a moderated mediation analysis approach (RQ3 and RQ4), following the methodology outlined in prior studies (Preacher et al., 2007). For both the mediation and moderated mediation models, we utilized bootstrapping (Preacher and Hayes, 2004) as a robust method to obtain reliable standard errors (SEs) for parameter estimation. Power analyses in G*Power and WebPower with an α-level of.05 indicated adequate statistical power for t-test and mediation analysis (1–β) > 0.80.

Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of aggressive behavior and aggressive motivation across 12 subgroups. As shown in Figure 2, the t-tests results revealed significant differences between children who played the PVG (M = 1.83, SD = 0.59) and those who played the neutral video game (M = 2.40, SD = 0.54) in terms of aggressive motivation [t (130) = 5.79, p < 0.001, d = 1.01]. Accordingly, as presented in Figure 3, the PVG group (M = 2.58, SD = 1.56) exhibited significantly lower levels of aggressive behavior compared with the neutral video game group (M = 3.91, SD = 1.01), t (130) = 7.89, p < 0.001, d = 1.01.

The mediation model revealed that aggressive motivation significantly mediated the relationship between playing the PVG and aggressive behavior [β = –0.41, SE = 0.13, 95% CI (–0.67, –0.16)], indicating that the effect of PVG exposure on aggression operates, at least in part, through changes in aggressive motivation. As illustrated in Figure 4, PVG play was a significant predictor of aggressive motivation [β = 0.91, SE = 0.16, 95% CI (–1.21, –0.59)]. suggesting that exposure to prosocial gaming reduced children’s aggressive motivation. In turn, aggressive motivation was positively associated with aggressive behavior [β = 0.45, SE = 0.12, 95% CI (0.22, 0.68)], confirming that children with higher aggressive motivation exhibited more aggressive behaviors. Furthermore, a direct effect of PVG play on aggressive behavior remained significant [β = –1.31, SE = 0.23, 95% CI (–1.76, –0.84)], indicating that beyond its indirect effects through aggressive motivation, PVG play had a direct influence in reducing aggression in preschool children.

Furthermore, we tested whether revenge motivation and instrumental motivation mediated the effects of PVG play on aggressive behavior. As shown in Figure 5, revenge motivation mediated the association between PVG play and aggressive behavior [β = –0.34, SE = 0.12, 95% CI (–0.59, –0.13)], suggesting that reductions in revenge-driven aggression contribute to the overall decrease in aggression following PVG exposure. Playing the PVG significantly predicted lower levels of revenge motivation [β = –0.87, SE = 0.16, 95% CI (–1.18, –0.56)], and then reduced revenge motivation, in turn, significantly predicted lower levels of aggression [β = –0.39, SE = 0.12, 95% CI (0.16, 0.62)]. However, instrumental motivation did not significantly predict aggressive behavior [β = 0.07, SE = 0.05, 95% CI (–0.19, 0.03)], indicating that children’s use of aggression for goal-oriented purposes was not a key explanatory mechanism in this context. Playing the PVG significantly predicted instrumental motivation [β = –0.46, SE = 0.17, 95% CI (–0.80, –0.13)], but instrumental motivation did not predict aggressive behavior [β = –0.16, SE = 0.11, 95% CI (–0.06, 0.37)]. Overall, the reducing effect of PVG play on aggressive behavior was partly mediated by aggressive motivation, especially revenge motivation.

The moderated mediation analysis revealed that gender significantly moderated the mediating effect of aggressive motivation, indicating that the indirect pathway from PVG play to aggressive behavior via aggressive motivation differed between boys and girls, as shown in Figure 6. Specifically, the mediating effect of aggressive motivation was significant for boys [β = –0.54, SE = 0.19, 95% CI (–0.94, –0.20)], but not for girls [β = –0.16, SE = 0.16, 95% CI (–0.47, 0.18)]. Gender moderated the effect of PVG play on aggressive behavior [β = –1.13, SE = 0.45, 95% CI (–2.02, –0.25)] and the effect of aggressive motivation on aggressive behavior [β = –0.47, SE = 0.23, 95% CI (–0.92, –0.02)]. Similarly, the mediating effect of revenge motivation was also only significant for boys [β = –0.43, SE = 0.18, 95% CI (–0.84, –0.12)] and not for girls [β = –0.16, SE = 0.15, 95% CI (–0.49, 0.14)]. These findings suggest that the link between aggressive motivation and aggression is stronger for boys,

In contrast with H4, the mediation effect was not significant at ages 4 [β = –0.04, SE = 0.08, 95% CI (–0.19, 0.13)], 5 [β = –0.28, SE = 0.13, 95% CI (–0.52, 0.01)] or 6 years [β = –0.56, SE = 0.42, 95% CI (–1.36, 0.29)], indicating that while PVGs influence aggression through motivational changes, these effects do not vary meaningfully with age in the preschool years.

In addition, age did not significantly moderate the impact of PVG play on aggressive behavior [β = –0.36, SE = 0.29, 95% CI (–0.93, 0.21)] or that of aggressive motivation on aggressive behavior [β = –0.03, SE = 0.15, 95% CI (–0.27, 0.33)]. Likewise, age failed to moderate the mediation effect of revenge motivation, which was not significant for children aged 4 [β = –0.05, SE = 0.10, 95% CI (–0.29, 0.13)], 5 [β = –0.26, SE = 0.14, 95% CI (–0.53, 0.003)] and 6 years [β = –0.38, SE = 0.44, 95% CI (–1.23, 0.45)].

Overall, gender moderated the mediating effect of aggressive motivation between PVG play and aggressive behavior, with a stronger effect observed for boys. This trend was also observed for the mediating effect of revenge motivation. However, the mediating effect of age was not significant.