Physical exercise positively influences life satisfaction through enhancements in psychological wellbeing (Kekäläinen et al., 2020; Herbert, 2022), emotional states (Ram et al., 2022; Waaso et al., 2022), and social engagement (Zhang et al., 2023). Meyer et al. (2021) emphasize that regular physical activity not only reduces anxiety but also fosters emotional regulation, particularly among high-stress populations like college students (Meyer et al., 2021). These findings underscore the importance of regular physical activity to foster improved mental health and overall life satisfaction. A large-scale analysis based on data, comprising 51,977 participants, similarly found that the relationship between physical exercise and life satisfaction is not always direct (Zhong and Xu, 2024). As Nam et al. found that self-determined motivation could be a key factor in exercise adherence and mental health outcomes, emphasizing the influence of contextual factors such as exercise environments and individual differences (Nam et al., 2023). Moreover, cultural, individual, and socio-economic factors have been found to moderate this relationship, leading to variability in findings across different populations (Brailovskaia et al., 2022). These findings not only highlight the multifactorial nature of the impact of physical exercise on life satisfaction but also underscore the need for further exploration of its underlying mechanisms and mediating variables.

Self-efficacy, defined as an individual's belief in their ability to execute actions to achieve desired outcomes (Bandura, 1993), plays a pivotal role in stress management and psychological wellbeing. Regular engagement in physical exercise enhances an individual's capacity to attain preset goals and reinforces self-affirmation of capabilities, thereby elevating self-efficacy (Tikac et al., 2022). Evidence further suggests that exercise behavior acts as an important mediator in the relationship between physical activity and self-efficacy, highlighting the value of improving exercise behaviors among college students (Han et al., 2022). Empirical studies by domestic and international scholars have shown that self-efficacy plays a significant role in the development of life satisfaction among college students (Mao et al., 2023). Higher self-efficacy is associated with increased life satisfaction in college students, with a direct positive relationship between the two (Wilcox and Nordstokke, 2019), making self-efficacy an important predictor of life satisfaction (Wang et al., 2022a,b). High self-efficacy promotes adaptive coping strategies and fosters a sense of control, thereby enhancing life satisfaction (Luo, 2024). Overall, existing evidence suggests that self-efficacy may play a crucial mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and life satisfaction.

Resilience, known as “psychological resilience” or “psychological hardiness” (Elavsky and McAuley, 2005), characterized by the capacity to adapt positively to adversity, acts as a psychological buffer that mitigates the adverse effects of stress and promotes emotional stability (Connor and Davidson, 2003). On the one hand, research has found that physical exercise plays a crucial role in building resilience (Xu et al., 2021). Li et al. (2024) revealed that individuals who engage in regular physical exercise are more likely to develop high levels of resilience. According to Belcher et al. (2021), physical exercise enhances resilience through mechanisms involving brain development and self-regulation. On the another hand, numerous studies have confirmed that resilience is significantly and positively correlated with life satisfaction (Shi et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2022b). Resilience improves life satisfaction by fulfilling basic psychological needs, such as autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Xu et al., 2021). Longitudinal studies further confirmed the unidirectional predictive relationship between resilience and life satisfaction, showing that high levels of resilience effectively buffer stress and reduce academic burnout, thereby enhancing life satisfaction (Wang et al., 2022a). Overall, this evidence provided a better understanding and valuable insights into aspects of resilience as potential mediators of in the relationship between physical.

Interestingly, some literature highlights the association between resilience and self-efficacy among students (Sabouripour et al., 2021). Self-efficacy has been identified as a significant predictor of resilience, as higher self-efficacy enhances individuals' capacity to cope with stress and adapt positively to challenges (Xu et al., 2021; Li et al., 2024). This relationship underscores the importance of self-efficacy in fostering resilience, suggesting a sequential link between these constructs. Self-efficacy and resilience may serve as mediating factors in the relationship between physical exercise and life satisfaction. Physical exercise enhances self-efficacy by reinforcing individuals' belief in their capabilities, which, in turn, strengthens resilience (Li et al., 2024). Resilience further supports emotional stability and stress management, contributing to higher life satisfaction. This serial mediation pathway not only explains the psychological mechanisms underlying the effects of physical exercise but also highlights the interconnected roles of self-efficacy and resilience in promoting wellbeing (Belcher et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022).

While prior studies have established the mediating roles of self-efficacy and resilience, they have predominantly focused on general populations or specific groups such as younger students or elite athletes (Morales-Rodríguez et al., 2020; Sabouripour et al., 2021). Research addressing these mediating mechanisms in the context of senior college students remains scarce, despite their unique challenges and heightened vulnerability during this transitional period. This study integrates psychological constructs and behavioral factors to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how physical exercise supports life satisfaction for senior college students during this critical transitional phase.

Building on these insights, the present study aims to address two key objectives: (1) examining the relationships among physical exercise, life satisfaction, self-efficacy, and resilience, and (2) investigating the chain-mediating roles of self-efficacy and resilience in the relationship between physical exercise and life satisfaction. The findings are expected to inform targeted interventions, such as resilience training and adaptive coping strategies, to enhance the wellbeing of this vulnerable population.

In this study, SPSS 23.0 software was used for statistical data analysis, and AMOS software (version 24.0) was used to test the mediation model, employing the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method for mediating effect testing. The data analysis process involves several steps. First, data pre-processing was performed using SPSS 23.0, including data importation and descriptive statistical analyses. In addition, a correlation analysis among the variables was conducted using Pearson's correlation coefficients to calculate the linear relationships between variables, generating a correlation matrix to identify significantly correlated variables. Second, AMOS software (version 24.0) was used to construct a structural equation model (SEM) to explore the mechanisms through which physical exercise influences life satisfaction. During the model fitting process, the fit indices of the model (such as χ²/df, GFI, AGFI, CFI, NFI, and RMSEA) were examined. The model structure was adjusted based on the fit results to improve rationality (Bentler, 1990; Lin et al., 2021). The bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to test for the mediating effect. The number of bootstrap samples was set to 5,000. The distribution of each path coefficient was calculated using bootstrap sampling, and 95% confidence intervals for the path coefficients were computed. The bias-corrected percentile method was used to adjust confidence intervals and ensure accuracy of the estimates. A confidence interval that did not contain zero indicated a significant mediating effect (Li et al., 2024). By reporting the size and significance of the mediating effects, the mechanisms by which the independent variables influenced the dependent variables through the mediator variables were explained, thereby providing empirical support for our research hypotheses.

To address the potential risk of common method bias (CMB) arising from self-reported data collection, this study implemented a combination of procedural and statistical controls. Procedurally, the questionnaire was designed to minimize bias through psychological and methodological separation (Kock et al., 2021). Independent and dependent variable items were placed in distinct sections to reduce overlap, and reverse-coded items alongside mixed Likert scales (e.g., 5-point, and 7-point scales) were incorporated to mitigate response pattern bias (Podsakoff et al., 2024). Anonymity of responses was ensured with explicit instructions to reduce social desirability bias.

Harman's single-factor test was performed as a preliminary assessment, revealing that the first factor accounted for 27.72% of the total variance, below the 40% threshold. To further ensure robustness, the unmeasured latent method construct technique was applied within a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework. By adding a latent method factor to account for shared variance among indicators, results confirmed that CMB had minimal impact on the study's findings. These combined approaches reinforced the validity and reliability of the conclusions.

Correlation analysis was conducted for physical exercise, life satisfaction, self-efficacy, and resilience (Table 1). The results revealed significant positive correlations between physical exercise and life satisfaction (r = 0.15, p < 0.01), self-efficacy (r = 0.11, p < 0.01), and resilience (r = 0.25, p < 0.01). These findings indicated that higher levels of physical exercise are associated with higher levers of life satisfaction, self-efficacy, and resilience. Life satisfaction also positively correlated with self-efficacy (r = 0.33, p < 0.01) and resilience (r = 0.44, p < 0.01), suggesting their interconnected influence. Furthermore, self-efficacy was strongly correlated with resilience (r = 0.62, p < 0.01), highlighting its potential role in resilience development. However, no significant relationships were found between exercise duration and either life satisfaction (r = 0.06, p > 0.05) or self-efficacy (r = 0.05, p > 0.05), nor between exercise frequency and self-efficacy (r = 0.02, p > 0.05). These results suggested that while physical exercise as a whole positively impacts psychological outcomes, specific exercise dimensions may vary in their effects. Further studies are needed to examine these nuanced relationships.

These findings suggest that physical exercise did not have a direct positive influence on life satisfaction. However, the specific impacts of these dimensions on life satisfaction remain unclear. Stepwise regression was used to further clarify this impact. In this method, each introduced independent variable is tested against the variables already in the equation, and the variables that meet the exclusion criteria are removed individually. The ΔR² value of each predictor variable is calculated through hierarchical stepwise regression to examine the relative contribution of each dimension of physical exercise to the total variance. The results indicated that exercise intensity significantly predicted life satisfaction, with R² = 0.029 (adjusted R² = 0.027, ΔR² = 0.029, p = 0.000). This suggests that exercise intensity accounts for 2.9% of the variance in life satisfaction among senior college students. However, the dimensions of exercise duration and frequency were not significantly correlated with life satisfaction (p > 0.05) and were thus excluded from the model. These findings demonstrate that among the examined dimensions, exercise intensity plays a unique yet limited role in predicting life satisfaction. The exclusion of exercise duration and frequency underscores the complexity of physical exercise's effects on psychological outcomes, suggesting that other unexamined factors may mediate or moderate these relationships. This aligns with previous research indicating that not all forms or aspects of physical activity uniformly influence wellbeing outcomes. Future studies should explore these dimensions in greater depth to better understand their nuanced impacts.

To analyze the relationships among variables, structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied using AMOS 24.0. Considering that life satisfaction and self-efficacy were measured using unidimensional scales comprising numerous items, the latent variables were aggregated before constructing the model to mitigate inflated measurement errors caused by multiple items (Ledgerwood and Shrout, 2011). The variable aggregation followed the factor method, ensuring unidimensionality and homogeneity of the scales (Matsunaga, 2008). After aggregation, self-efficacy was packed into three parcels: Efficacy 1, Efficacy 2, and Efficacy 3, while life satisfaction was packed into two parcels: Satisfaction 1 and Satisfaction 2.

The initial SEM model (Figure 1) was constructed based on proposed hypotheses and variable correlations. The model's fit indices were χ²/df = 4.62, GFI = 0.95, AGFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.95, NFI = 0.94, and RMSEA = 0.08. However, further analysis revealed that the direct path between physical exercise and life satisfaction (β = 0.07, t = 1.26, P = 0.21) and the path from self-efficacy to life satisfaction (β = 0.02, t = 0.29, P = 0.77) were not significant. After removing these paths, a revised model (Figure 2) was obtained. The revised model showed improved fit indices: χ²/df = 4.42, GFI = 0.95, AGFI = 0.91, CFI = 0.96, NFI = 0.94, and RMSEA = 0.08. The revised model indicated better alignment with the observed data, supporting the hypothesis that resilience plays a key mediating role between physical exercise and life satisfaction.

This study used the bootstrap method to test the mediating effects in the structural model. The bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method was employed with 5,000 resamples, and the confidence interval for the mediating effect was set at 95%. As shown in Table 2, the total effect of physical exercise on life satisfaction was significant (β = 0.16, p < 0.05), and the bias-corrected confidence interval did not include zero. In addition, the 95% confidence intervals for the impact paths in the revised model (Figure 2) excluded zero, indicating significant mediating effects. Specifically, the mediating effect of resilience between physical exercise and life satisfaction was significant (β = 0.11, p < 0.05). Similarly, the mediating effect of resilience on self-efficacy and life satisfaction was significant (β = 0.35, p < 0.05). Moreover, the chain mediating effect of self-efficacy and resilience on physical exercise and life satisfaction was significant (β = 0.05, p < 0.05).

Correlation analysis showed significant positive correlations among exercise intensity, time, frequency, and life satisfaction, with only exercise intensity exerting a significant impact on life satisfaction. Therefore, the predictive effect of physical exercise on the life satisfaction of senior students is minimal. This finding aligns with prior research (Zhong and Xu, 2024), suggesting that physical exercise does not always directly predict life satisfaction. The low predictive effect of physical exercise on life satisfaction may be due to two factors. On one hand, researchers found that only high-intensity exercise can significantly promote dopamine release, improve emotional states, and enhance subjective wellbeing (Davis et al., 2011). However, the levels of physical exercise among senior students in this study were relatively low, failing to improve their physical and mental states, and thus had a weak impact on life satisfaction. On the other hand, life satisfaction is an individual's subjective evaluation of overall life quality, while physical exercise more directly provides pleasurable and fulfilling experiences both physically and mentally. These positive experiences may indirectly influence life satisfaction by improving an individual's perception of health and happiness. Most importantly, the effects of exercise frequency and duration may be weakened for the senior students due to academic pressure and time constraints. The weak direct relationship between exercise frequency, duration, and life satisfaction in this study indicates that future research should explore the differential effects of various exercise durations, frequencies, and intensities on psychological health.

This study showed that resilience plays a significant mediating role between physical exercise and life satisfaction. The analysis revealed that physical exercise significantly enhances resilience, which in turn positively predicts life satisfaction. This result aligns with previous studies, indicating that regular participation in physical activities can enhance an individual's adaptability and resilience (Xu et al., 2021). Resilience, a crucial psychological resource, helps senior students cope better with multiple pressures during the graduation transition. For example, when faced with job-search pressures or academic tasks, resilience can help reduce negative emotions caused by setbacks, enhance problem-solving abilities, and promote positive psychological regulation (Chang et al., 2023). Additionally, the role of resilience in buffering negative emotions (such as anxiety and depression) has been validated (Wang et al., 2022a). This buffering effect not only reduces the individual's negative evaluations of life situations but also enhances their life satisfaction. Given the results of this study, resilience should be recognized as a vital form of health capital. Future intervention measures should combine physical exercise with psychological skills training to help university students enhance resilience and adapt to the multiple challenges of the graduation transition.

This study further revealed that self-efficacy and resilience have a chain-mediated effect on the relationship between physical exercise and life satisfaction. Specifically, physical exercise enhances self-efficacy, which in turn significantly improves resilience, and ultimately promotes life satisfaction through this chain path. Self-efficacy, a core concept in Bandura's social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1993), indicates that regular participation in physical exercise enhances individuals' confidence in achieving goals and their ability to cope with complex situations (Tikac et al., 2022). High self-efficacy not only promotes the adoption of adaptive coping strategies but also reduces psychological distress, laying the foundation for improving resilience (Sabouripour et al., 2021). For senior students, the confidence gained from physical exercise helps them cope more effectively with the dual pressures of academic work and employment, while also providing valuable psychological resources for solving complex problems and alleviating psychological distress. Resilience further serves as a mediator in the relationship between self-efficacy and life satisfaction. Resilience improves emotional stability and rapid recovery abilities, helping students bounce back from setbacks quickly (Zhang et al., 2023), and providing greater adaptability and coping strategies when facing major life changes, such as leaving campus and entering society. In the current economic context of a downturn and declining employment rates, this psychological support is particularly important, providing a key safeguard for enhancing life satisfaction. This chain-mediated effect reveals the layered accumulation path of psychological capital and demonstrates how physical exercise indirectly influences life satisfaction through self-efficacy and resilience. The results suggest that future interventions should integrate short, efficient physical activities with psychological skills training to help students better cope with the complex challenges of the graduation transition and improve life satisfaction.