Stress is among normal reactions shown by individuals against challenging situations (Kaşikci et al., 2023). Individuals can exhibit diverse stress reactions following an earthquake (Kwon et al., 2023). Those reactions, seemingly normal at the beginning, can turn into serious mental health problems if measures are not taken (Daneshvar et al., 2022). In the literature, changing environmental conditions, psychological (Lu et al., 2023) and social support level, communication styles, and government policies (Gim and Shin, 2022), challenges during the reconstruction phase, level of preliminary knowledge and safety measures for earthquake (Rajabi et al., 2022), and emotions such as fear and guilt are among post-earthquake stress factors (Wang et al., 2020). Studies have shown that perceived stress can be a significant risk factor for negative mental health and an important determinant for low satisfaction with life (Ishaq et al., 2020).

Most of the available studies have found a correlation between perceived stress and low satisfaction with life (Extremera et al., 2009). Yet, many individuals preserve their high level of satisfaction with life despite increased stress levels and learn to adapt to recent changes successfully (Lee et al., 2016). Whereas, there are people who exhibit high levels of satisfaction with life despite their experience of intense stress following the earthquake, studies have failed to provide an adequate explanation of the matter. Hence, in-depth research is needed to explore complex interaction among several factors associated with the psychological and social outcomes of this earthquake which is described as one of the biggest earthquakes due to its destructiveness.

According to the diathesis-stress model, individuals react differently to life events. Several events have been associated with increased psychological disturbances in individuals who are vulnerable to biological, situational, and psychological factors. In other words, stressful experiences interact with vulnerability may heighten the risk for several problems (Ingram and Luxton, 2005). Therefore, following an earthquake, stressors can interact with individual vulnerabilities, and are associated with poorer mental health outcomes and reduced wellbeing.

The cognitive vulnerability model suggests that irrational beliefs in individuals mediate the relationship between stressful life events and their emotional and behavioral reactions. According to the model, certain beliefs form vulnerability to those reactions (Beck, 2005). Within the model, explanations of the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) approach sheds light on the determination and understanding of the mediation mechanisms that influence such a relationship (Balkis and Duru, 2023).

REBT encourages individuals to think rationally and mitigate their irrational thoughts. REBT argues that psychological dysfunction is caused by individuals' beliefs about the events they have experienced. The REBT approach can be summarized within the ABC model which suggests that individuals' beliefs (B) about adversity (A) lead to emotional and behavioral reactions (C) (Ellis et al., 2010). REBT claims that irrational beliefs (B) assume a mediating role in the relationship between adverse life events (A) and emotional and behavioral consequences (Kaşikci et al., 2023). Here, the purpose is to enable different emotional or behavioral reactions by modifying the irrational beliefs.

In REBT, rational beliefs are flexible, not extreme, and consistent with reality. Irrational beliefs, on the other hand, are rigid, extreme, and inconsistent with reality (Sælid and Nordahl, 2017; Turner, 2016). Within this context, earthquake-related rational beliefs can be described as accepting the reality of the situation, perceiving that there are things which can be controlled and taking the necessary precautions (Turner, 2016). Irrational beliefs can be described as explaining the cause of earthquake with supernatural processes, accepting what has happened as fate and abandoning the practices of taking precautions (Bilik, 2019), and regarding earthquake as unpredictable and its damages as unavoidable (McClure et al., 2007). According to REBT, post-earthquake stressors can cause individuals to become even more traumatized through irrational beliefs as cognitive vulnerability factors (Djamaluddin and Umar, 2021). On the contrary, rational beliefs can become cognitive protective factors in comprehending the effects of post-earthquake stressors on individuals' satisfaction with life. Current studies have shown relationships between rational and irrational beliefs and mental health problems including depression and anxiety (Buschmann et al., 2018) as well as welfare indicators including psychological wellbeing (Kaşikci et al., 2023) and satisfaction with life (DiGiuseppe et al., 2018). Studies also provide evidence on the mediation of beliefs. For instance, Kaşikci et al. (2023) found the relationship between stress factors and ego resiliency to be mediated by rational and irrational beliefs. They also reported that irrational beliefs mediated between stress factors and psychological wellbeing. Based on the above-mentioned theoretical explanations and the previous findings, one would expect irrational beliefs to mediate between perceived stress and satisfaction with life.

It should be noted that despite being an important mediator between post-earthquake perceived stress and satisfaction with life, irrational beliefs are not the single factor. Another important concept in this relationship is hope. According to Snyder's hope theory (2002), hope is conceptualized as individual's ability to produce appropriate strategies to achieve the desired objectives and have the motivation to use those strategies. In stressful situations, acting in accordance with their objectives and finding new ways can determine individuals' reactions toward that stressful situation. Individuals can seek ways in line with their objectives and values in stressful situations and have the motivation to realize those ways. Thus, high hopes could be an important component in the mitigation of their stress signs by enabling them to cope with challenging circumstances and show resistance to those situations (Folkman, 2012; Çelik, 2023). Hope might therefore contribute to individuals' welfare indicators. Studies have found hope to be correlated with psychological wellbeing, gratitude, optimism (Kardas et al., 2019), psychological resilience (Gilman and Huebner, 2006) and satisfaction with life (Bailey et al., 2007; Kardas et al., 2019; Valle et al., 2006).

In addition, mitigating the irrational beliefs could help individuals develop the perception for being able to manage and control the stressors (Jones and Turner, 2022; Turner, 2016), which might increase their hope levels. For example, in their study which tested whether the knowledge and practical use of the ABC model as an important element of REBT increase the hope, Sælid and Nordahl (2017) found that REBT significantly mitigated the irrational thinking and significantly increased hope and that REBT had both instant and long-term effects. Based on these findings and considerations, we can assume that we can mitigate the irrational thinking to increase hope levels among individuals, therefore helping them cope with stressful life events. Thus, all these studies suggest that individuals with low levels of irrational thinking and high hope levels might possess improved stress coping skills, which could potentially be associated with levels of satisfaction with life. However, studies are needed to have an in-depth understanding of how hope and irrational beliefs are related to individuals' psychological status.

Although post-earthquake damages and physical health outcomes have been extensively addressed in the literature, mental health outcomes could not be understood adequately (Ishaq et al., 2020). Yet, earthquakes have been associated with unprecedented public health issues including mental health problems (Kurt et al., 2023). As proven by the examples of earthquakes in Türkiye, victims might feel under stress following the earthquake (Iqbal and Sheikh, 2023). It does therefore present an obligation to address mental health outcomes of the earthquake (Daneshvar et al., 2022). Despite the availability of some studies on the subject matter, they focus rather on the negative outcomes of earthquake (Lu et al., 2023). Studies which address protective factors are needed to make effective interventions and mitigate the adverse effects of stress factors in the area of mental health. In this respect, REBT and hope offer valuable insights into the relationship between earthquakes and mental health. Exploring the irrational mindscapes and encouraging a change in them could help individuals cope with the post-earthquake stress, which might make individuals' adaptation easier, increase their welfare levels and improve their satisfaction with life. In addition to those beliefs, hope is an important factor which could contribute to this function. Indeed, hope encourages the individual to overcome challenging life events, mobilize their coping mechanisms to set themselves meaningful objectives. Within this context, hope can provide enlightening information on how individuals cope with post-earthquake stressful situations. Moreover, addressing the concept of hope could allow for identifying the protective factors that mitigate negative outcomes of stressful situations on mental health. Eventually, hope might make it possible to set appropriate objectives for individuals and the society within the context of earthquake, develop strategies in line with those objectives, and take functional steps in using those strategies.

In summary, although earthquakes are regarded as an important public health issue including the mental health problems, further research are required to have a sufficient understanding of the matter. REBT and hope could provide a framework for reducing the negative psychological effects of earthquake. Future studies can allow for noticing the encouraging mechanisms and protective factors in the mitigation of earthquake's negative impact. Moreover, perceived stress levels of individuals victimized by earthquake could be assessed in several areas to minimize the effects of this experience, and individuals can be encouraged to act in line with their objectives and purposes. Findings to be obtained can be used to develop effective interventions and to improve welfare levels of individuals and the society.

In the present study, levels of satisfaction with life among individuals who directly or indirectly (through social media, television, internet, news reports) experience the earthquake that took place on 06 February 2023 were examined with respect to their perceived stress, irrational beliefs, and hope levels. A structural equation model was established with these variables. In the model, the predictive variable included perceived stress levels, while satisfaction with life was the predicted variable, and irrational beliefs and hope served as the mediator variables. The research model is provided in Figure 1.

The following hypotheses were developed in the study:

Sample size adequacy is crucial for determining any potential effects among variables. For a mediation analysis, a sample size of 115 to 285 participants is enough to identify the effect among the variables (Fritz and MacKinnon, 2007). Data were collected from as many participants as possible in this analysis (N = 482). This number is way beyond the specified range, which reduces chances of inconclusive results.

The long-term negative consequences of an earthquake on individuals can affect their psychological wellbeing, leading to traumatic effects that can persist for years (Lu et al., 2023). In addition to causing serious psychological effects on people living in the region, traumatic experiences such as earthquakes can also have negative mental consequences for individuals who are exposed to the earthquake as a secondary event and are at risk of earthquakes (Kwon et al., 2023). Earthquakes that have occurred in Türkiye since February 6, 2023, are seen as a social trauma that may be associated with the entire society, not just individuals who directly experience the earthquakes and suffer various losses (Biçakci and Okumuş, 2023). In the studies carried out, it is logical for the research sample to consist of people living in both areas affected and not affected by the earthquake (Çitak, 2023). This aspect was taken into consideration in the study.

As presented in Table 1, the study enrolled 391 women (M_age = 25.1 years, SD = 7.07, range = 18 to 49) and 91 men (M_age= 26.9 years, SD = 8.34, range = 18 to 44) who were selected with convenience sampling method and located in Türkiye including the 11 provinces affected by the earthquake. The most frequently reported demographic categories were bachelor's degree (n = 313) and those who were in other provinces at the time of the earthquake (n = 203).

During our investigation, the data collection process was conducted under extraordinary circumstances. In areas still experiencing the repercussions of the earthquake, traditional face-to-face data collection methods were unfeasible. This was primarily due to the persistence of online education at numerous universities and the displacement of individuals to safer regions. Consequently, we utilized social media platforms, including WhatsApp, Instagram, and Facebook, to collect the required data. Research data were gathered through a web-based survey that included study measures and sociodemographic questions. The survey participants were submitted an informed consent form before completing the survey. Participation was on voluntary basis, and the survey was completed anonymously. It took about 15 min to complete the survey. Due to the survey design in which participants had to answer all questions, there were no participants who rejected participation or did not complete the survey. Data collection was performed between 18 and 31 December 2023. The research has received approval from the ethical committee of a university in Türkiye and conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration.

Several data analyses were performed to examine how irrational beliefs and hope mediate the relationship between perceived stress and satisfaction with life. Initially, preliminary analyses were conducted including the normality assumption, observed scale characteristics, and correlation analysis. The normality assumption was assessed using skewness and kurtosis scores, and their cutoff values. For the normality assumption, kurtosis and skewness scores, and their cutoff values were investigated with scores below |1|. The values were found to be acceptable for normal distribution (Mayers, 2013). Next, Pearson's correlation analysis was performed to examine the correlations among the study variables. Following the evaluation of the preliminary analyses, serial mediation analysis was used to analyze the mediation model showing the role of irrational beliefs and hope in the relationship between perceived stress and satisfaction with life. For this intermediary analysis, Hayes' Model-6 was employed using the Process Macro. Additionally, the bootstrap method was applied with a sample of 5,000 iterations to compute 90% confidence intervals (CI) for indirect effects (Hayes, 2018). In interpreting the results of the model established in the analysis, standardized effects were categorized as low for values approximating 0.01, moderate for values near 0.09, and high for values around 0.25 (Preacher and Kelley, 2011). The analysis utilized SPSS version 25 and the Process Macro.

Based on the results for the model constructed for the present research, preliminary analyses were conducted for normality values of the data, intervariable correlations, and mean scores from the scales. Results of the preliminary analyses are provided in Table 2.

According to Table 2, mean scores from the scales had skewness and kurtosis values between −0.56 and 0.41, and the distribution was normal (Mayers, 2013). As for the reliability of the scales, their Cronbach's alphas ranged between 0.83 and 0.94. Based on the correlation results, there was a moderately significant negative correlation between perceived stress and hope (r = −0.34, p < 0.001), a highly significant positive correlation between perceived stress and irrational beliefs (r = 0.51, p < 0.001), and a moderately significant negative correlation between perceived stress and satisfaction with life (r = −0.42, p < 0.001). There was a highly significant negative correlation between hope and irrational beliefs (r = −0.55, p < 0.001) and a highly significant positive correlation between hope and satisfaction with life (r = 0.43, p < 0.001). A highly significant negative correlation was found between irrational beliefs and satisfaction with life (r = −0.56, p < 0.001).

Following the preliminary analyses, further analyses were performed in line with the model in Figure 1. Indirect effect of perceived stress on satisfaction with life through irrational beliefs and hope was also examined in the research. Results for the model are shown in Figure 2. Results for the direct and indirect effects in the model are provided in Tables 3, 4, respectively.

An analysis of the standardized effects illustrated in Figure 2 revealed that perceived stress was significantly associated with irrational beliefs (β = 0.51, p < 0.05) and life satisfaction (β = −0.17, p < 0.05). The findings further indicated that irrational beliefs were significantly associated with both hope (β = −0.51, p < 0.05) and life satisfaction (β = −0.39, p < 0.05). Moreover, hope was found to be significantly associated with life satisfaction (β = 0.16, p < 0.05). These results provide support for Hypothesis 1.

Examining the non-standardized total, direct and indirect effects in the life satisfaction model as presented in Table 3, it was determined that perceived stress predicted life satisfaction through irrational beliefs (β = −0.11, p < 0.05). Similarly, perceived stress was found to significantly predict life satisfaction through hope (β = −0.01, p < 0.05). Furthermore, perceived stress was observed to significantly predict life satisfaction through both irrational beliefs and hope (β = −0.02, p < 0.05).

An analysis of Table 4, Figure 2 revealed that the standardized values of indirect effects demonstrated that perceived stress was indirectly associated with life satisfaction through irrational beliefs (K2 = −0.20). Similarly, perceived stress showed a significant indirect association with life satisfaction via hope (K2 = −0.01). Additionally, perceived stress significantly predicted life satisfaction through both irrational beliefs and hope (K2= −0.04).

The present study demonstrated that post-earthquake perceived stress was negatively associated with individuals' levels of satisfaction with life. The study further substantiated the REBT approach by demonstrating that irrational beliefs and hope serve as mediators between perceived stress and life satisfaction. With outputs showing that hope is a potential force acting as a protective factor in the relationship between perceived stress and satisfaction with life, the study also contributes to the cognitive-motivational construct related to hope. By this means, it highlights the important role of irrational beliefs in shaping the mental health in stressful situations and calls attention to hope as a supporting factor in mental health. To sum up, the present study provides evidence for the purpose of increasing the wellbeing levels, encourages the appropriate interventions while contributing to our understanding of earthquake-related psychological mechanisms.

Whereas, this study offered an important argument for research and practice, it should be assessed considering a few limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional design of the research precludes establishing causations. Longitudinal studies are needed to test time-dependent changes of the model tested. The data are limited to self-reports of the participants. Future studies could benefit from multiple techniques to investigate the study variables. Qualitative and mixed research methods can also be utilized to achieve more extensive results. In addition, the data collection process was conducted under extraordinary circumstances. During the period when the effects of the earthquake persisted, face-to-face data collection methods were not feasible, and thus, the data were collected via social media platforms (eg., WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook). However, this approach may have restricted the participation of individuals without access to or who do not actively use social media. Future studies are advised to incorporate alternative techniques such as telephone interviews or face-to-face surveys, in addition to online data collection methods. Besides, it was observed that the proportion of female participants exceeded that of male participants in our study. The literature indicates that women are more inclined to engage in self-report scales than men (Curtin et al., 2000; Singer et al., 2000). This discrepancy may have resulted in an imbalance in gender representation within the study, thereby limiting the generalizability of the findings. Future research should develop sampling strategies to ensure a more equitable representation of both female and male participants, thereby enhancing data balance. This study enrolled participants aged between 18 and 49 years. Future studies could use diverse samples to examine the relationships among the variables. The present research was conducted with participants who were and were not in the disaster zone at the time of the earthquake. Studies could further assess victims and non-victims separately and compare the results. In addition, pre- and post-earthquake factors that affect mental health of the participants could be examined individually.