Moving the body in response to music is considered an enjoyable experience worldwide (Fitch, 2015; Stevens, 2012). A typical example of people moving their bodies in accordance with music occurs during festivals. Various types of traditional dances are performed at festivals around the world (Frederiksen and Chang, 2023). As shown in the UNESCO List of Cultural Heritage, dance is performed at ceremonies and festivals all over the world (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2024). For example, Hula in Hawaii, Bon Odori (Bon dance) in Japan, Irish Stepdance in Ireland, Ghoomar in India, Maypole Dance in the United Kingdom, and Samba in Brazil. These dances reflect the cultural heritage and traditions of their respective regions, often performed during festivals or special occasions. Argan et al. (2021) showed that a Turkish dance festival could offer benefits, serving as an important experiential space that could improve the physical and social confidence of participants and strengthen intergenerational solidarity. Argan et al. (2021) also demonstrated that participants at the Turkish dance festival demonstrated a significant relationship between the motivation to gain dance experience and the quality of the experience; furthermore, this quality significantly impacted satisfaction. This finding suggests that the intention to participate in the festival may affect the participants’ sense of community. Furthermore, community-based festivals and community dances have been associated with a sense of community (Kino, 2016; Shinonaga et al., 2020).

Regarding the benefits of dancing and group dancing, many studies have shown that dance is a beneficial activity that promotes physical, psychological, and social health in various age groups (Fong Yan et al., 2024; McCrary et al., 2021). In a review article, McCrary et al. (2021) demonstrated the physiological, cognitive, and psychological benefits of dance. They indicated that dance functions as an aerobic exercise that improves cardiorespiratory endurance, increases muscle strength and flexibility, and improves balance and physical coordination. Furthermore, they also pointed out that learning and remembering choreography helps to maintain and improve cognitive function. As for psychological effects, dance promotes the secretion of endorphins, reduces stress and anxiety, and enhances mood. As a social benefit, group dance activities can strengthen social ties, promote social interaction, reduce feelings of isolation, and contribute to a sense of community (McCrary et al., 2021). Dancing together can also promote the secretion of oxytocin and strengthen social bonds (Vander Elst et al., 2023). The benefits of dance have also spread to dance movement therapy (DMT) and dance interventions in medical institutions. DMT is said to be effective for reducing depression and anxiety, improving quality of life, and improving interpersonal, cognitive, and motor skills (Koch et al., 2014). Dance is also regarded as a promising treatment and rehabilitation method for neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease (Vander Elst et al., 2023).

In many traditional dances, music is essential. Music and its accompanying physical movements are cultural behaviors, and they are activities that people have long been familiar with (Trehub et al., 2015). Indeed, in concerts, people can be seen swaying their bodies (Keller and Rieger, 2009). In sports activities, audience members sing while jumping up and down to cheer athletes or teams (Knijnik, 2018). Furthermore, both music and dance are associated with festivals (Frederiksen and Chang, 2023). Extensive scientific research has investigated the physiological, cognitive, developmental, evolutionary, and social aspects of moving the body to music and its effects on relationships with others (Cirelli et al., 2014; Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010; Savage et al., 2020; Tarr et al., 2016). In recent years, the urge to move one’s body in response to music has been termed “groove” (as reviewed in Etani et al., 2024). The urge to move to music is probably a universal sensation because words describing the relationship between music and physical movements exist in many cultures (Etani et al., 2024; Kawase, 2024; Kawase and Eguchi, 2010). Regarding groove, groovy music can be the optimal music for anticipation mechanisms and activate the reward system. Anticipation and reward system are related to social connections (Fiveash et al., 2023). These studies highlight the significance of the link between rhythmic factors in music and physical movements. In addition, the fact that rhythmic physical movements are observed early during a person’s developmental stages indicates that moving (or dancing) to music is a primitive characteristic of human beings (Trehub et al., 2015).

In response to the question of why people move to music, its evolutionary and adaptive significance is often highlighted. In this respect, its role in fostering social bonds deserves special mention (Dunbar, 2011). Indeed, moving together to music promotes prosocial behavior (Tarr et al., 2016) and social bonding (Savage et al., 2020). This is true for both infants and adults and is considered a fundamental human trait (Cirelli et al., 2014; Kawase et al., 2018; Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010). According to Cirelli et al. (2014), 14-month-old infants recorded a higher level of spontaneous helping behavior toward adults who moved together to music compared with those who did not move together. In an experiment conducted by Kirschner and Tomasello (2010) on 4-year-old children, two people who played instruments together with the children who moved while playing a musical instrument together showed more willingness to help the other child in trouble compared to those who simply walked together. Further, in an experiment on high school students, dancing together was found to release endorphins, which foster social hand-bonding (Tarr et al., 2016). These studies show that the formation of social bonds through movement in synchronization with music is a universal phenomenon observed across the lifespan from infancy to adulthood. This ubiquity suggests that the link between synchronized movement, music, and social bonding may have evolutionary roots, implying that this behavior has been selectively advantageous throughout human history. According to Kawase et al. (2007), when two people who drummed freely engaged in communication, a shared rhythm was correlated with good interpersonal impressions. The effects of movement synchronization have also been explained by brain mechanisms, which may enhance social bonding because of increased neural synchrony and enhanced interpersonal coordination (as reviewed in Basso et al., 2020).

Simply moving together is known to influence a person’s prosocial behavior, as well; this is because synchronization promotes prosocial behavior (Carpenter et al., 2013; Keller et al., 2014), cooperative skills (Valdesolo et al., 2010), compassion and altruistic behavior (Valdesolo and DeSteno, 2011), empathy (Behrends et al., 2012), interpersonal likeability (Hove and Risen, 2009), rapport (Lakens and Stel, 2011), trust (Launay et al., 2013), and social closeness (Tarr et al., 2016). These effects are applicable to young children, as well. For instance, Carpenter et al. (2013) showed that 18-month-old infants were more helpful to adults who imitated the infants’ behavior than to those who did not. Nevertheless, Stupacher et al. (2017) pointed out the importance of the social bonds generated by moving to matching music over those occurring from simply matching movements or monotonous stimuli, such as a metronome.

One of the most common examples of dancing to music occurs during festivals. Indeed, festivals help maintain the sustainability and stability of communities (Dunbar, 2011). Indeed, festivals and rituals involving dancing to music are prevalent in various communities worldwide (Stevens, 2012; Trehub et al., 2015); therefore, festivals highlighting music and dance are important targets to examine the cultural and evolutionary behavior of human communities. Furthermore, earlier studies indicate that participation in festivals enhances social capital (Arcodia and Whitford, 2006; Jaeger and Mykletun, 2013). Festivals have been shown to promote a sense of community (Hassanli et al., 2021), enhance community building (Mair and Duffy, 2020), and ensure community maintenance (Black, 2016) as part of improving social sustainability. Accordingly, festivals are predicted to affect community awareness and social connectedness.

This study examines whether dancing, which is an inherent part of many festivals, is associated with individuals’ sense of community. Studies indicate that individuals’ prosocial behavior and sociability increase after dancing and playing music with others (e.g., Dunbar, 2011; Kawase et al., 2018; Keller et al., 2014; Tarr et al., 2016). Many experimental studies clarify that an individual exhibits prosocial behavior immediately after moving to music (e.g., Cirelli et al., 2014; Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010). If dancing with others enhances social bonding, individuals’ participation in festivals may enhance social bonding since dancing is a part of many festivals.

However, it is unclear whether such effects persist over time since festivals and rituals, such as community festivals and ceremonies, are held only a limited number of times (usually once) a year. In the aforementioned research, individuals’ promotion of prosocial behavior by moving to music was often measured immediately after the movement. In other words, the long-term effects of dancing associated with festivals, which occur very infrequently, remain unverified. This may be due to the infrequency of local festivals; moreover, since all the participants were not from the same area, collecting a large amount of data was difficult. Although earlier studies indicate that participation in festivals enhances individuals’ sense of community, they do not clarify whether the presence of dancing in festivals makes any difference in social bonds and the sense of community.

The current study addressed the aforementioned research gap as follows: A large-scale online survey assessed by three scales regarding sense of community and loneliness was conducted; further, the study examined whether the people who participate in local festivals involving dancing have a higher sense of community than those participating in festivals without dancing regardless of participation history or intention. This condition can clarify whether those who had participated in festivals and danced had a greater sense of community than those in other conditions. Research on whether festivals that involve individuals moving to music make an ongoing contribution to community maintenance, as well as enhancing individual social bonds, helps reassess the effects of dance from a long-term perspective and clarifies why festivals involving dance are held iteratively. This also serves as a link between the aforementioned experimental studies and real-world practices.

This study explored the psychological impact of the presence or absence of dancing at Japanese festivals. Approximately 600,000 festivals may be held in a year in Japan, of which around 300,000 are traditional festivals (Nikkei, Inc, 2015, August 23). Many of these are held in relatively small local communities. In many cases, they are held once a year or every few years. It has also been pointed out that many festivals are held in summer (Tanaka, 2024).

Specifically, Bon dance is one of the most popular dances in festivals in Japan (Gilhooly, 2009). Bon dance is an outdoor activity enjoyed by individuals of all ages and genders during the Obon season, which typically occurs between July and August. Originally emerging as a folk tradition tied to the Obon festival—a time when the spirits of the deceased are believed to return to this world to be honored—the dance has undergone a shift in meaning over time. Its religious connotations have diminished in recent years, and it has largely evolved into a community-oriented form of entertainment that welcomes participation from everyone. Furyu odori, the traditional Japanese dances in festivals including Bon dance have been registered as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. The Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs has introduced them in a leaflet with photos of the dances (The Agency for Cultural Affairs, n.d.). Bon dance festivals are organized throughout Japan and have become widely recognized as casual events that people can enjoy in their regular clothing, even in urban areas. These festivals may also serve an important function in fostering a sense of community and bringing people closer together and a sense of sharing the same rhythm during dancing together that will provide a relief that we are living in harmony with each other (Oishi, 2020).

Accordingly, this study addresses the following hypotheses that (1) the participants of festivals involving dancing possess a higher sense of community than those who do not dance or who participate in festivals without dancing, (2) individuals’ high sense of community is not influenced by their previous festival participation habits, and (3) individuals’ high sense of community is not influenced by the intensity of their willingness to participate in festivals.

This study investigated how dancing at local festivals affects individuals’ sense of community. A survey that was conducted a few months after a community festival revealed the following findings: (1) The participants who attended a festival involving dancing and actually physically participated in dancing had a higher sense of community and lower loneliness than those who did not dance or who attended the festival without dancing. (2) These tendencies were not influenced by previous festival attendance habits. (3) These tendencies were not related to individuals’ willingness to attend festivals. Accordingly, these results suggest that dancing at festivals can promote a sense of community since it is not significantly influenced by individuals’ habits or willingness to participate.

This study did not specify the long-term effects of festivals lasting multiple years. Hence, further investigation into the effects of participation in festivals with dancing is necessary. In general, festivals are held once a year or every few years. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on the sustainability of maintaining or attenuating the effects of participation in festivals. In addition, a method for randomly selecting participants is necessary. By randomly assigning festival participants to different conditions, the festival’s effects on communal awareness can be measured under controlled conditions. Long-term follow-up surveys may also be effective. The simplest and most ideal method would be to randomly assign local participants to either “dance” or “not dance” and then continuously measure their sense of community. Furthermore, it is useful to understand the impact of differences in festival dance type and participation style on sense of community. For example, investigations into ethnic dances worldwide and casual brief participation in festival dances could provide valuable insights.

Experiences related to individual dance should be considered in future studies, since this study has not collected data regarding individual dance experience, for instance, dance lessons. To shed more light on the topic, international and cultural comparisons must be performed. In Japan, many different festivals are held; however, the forms of festivals and the attitudes of participants differ across cultures.

This study clarified that those who attended and danced with others at festivals involving dancing had a greater sense of community and lower loneliness than those who did not dance or those who attended festivals without dancing. These tendencies were unrelated to past participation habits or a high level of willingness to participate, indicating the importance of continuously participating in and dancing at festivals. Results provided new insights into the beneficial effects of moving the body in tune with music, which is a universally observed behavior, and its social significance. The famous Japanese saying Odoranya son (It’s a loss if you do not dance) indicates that dancing can foster social bonds and alleviate loneliness while in present communities, reduced social bonds and intense feelings of loneliness are significant social problems (Toepoel, 2013). Since ancient times, local festivals have helped foster bonds between community members. This study can help reevaluate the roles of dance in festivals and shed light on the reasons for different human cultural practices.

For practical applications, this study highlights a simple solution to strengthen individuals’ sense of community. By simply participating in local festivals involving dances, for example, Bon dance, individuals can increase their sense of belonging and social bonding. Sharing dance and music at festivals may help people experiencing verbal communication difficulties to socially bond with others since dance, in general, requires no words. Furthermore, a quantitative view of social bonding can help reassess the social value of local festivals.