Diversity of cultural interactions refers to the extent and variety of an individual’s engagement with different cultures through social networks (Caiazza and Volpe, 2015). It captures both the frequency and breadth of cultural perspectives encountered (Howitt, 2005). Studies, such as Ghermandi et al. (2020) and Zhang et al. (2022), identify this diversity through activities like participating in discussions, sharing content, and interacting with culturally diverse users. Such interactions provide access to a global repository of cultural knowledge and perspectives (Schwarzenthal et al., 2020), broadening horizons and influencing attitudes toward other cultures. This engagement fosters greater cultural awareness and sensitivity, making it pivotal for cross-cultural understanding (Howitt, 2005).

Cultural empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of individuals from different cultural backgrounds (Pedersen and Pope, 2010; Jami et al., 2024). It extends beyond basic cultural awareness to establish emotional connections with others (Butovskaya et al., 2021). Empathy facilitates effective communication and appropriate responses to behaviors rooted in different cultural contexts (Drummond, 2022). In global networks, it is essential for fostering smoother, respectful exchanges across boundaries, reducing conflicts, and enhancing collaboration.

The relationship between diversity of cultural interactions and cultural empathy is strongly positive, as supported by cultural intelligence theory (CIT). CIT posits that exposure to varied cultural contexts enhances cognitive and emotional understanding of different cultures (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). Frequent engagement with diverse cultural content expands knowledge and sensitivity, fostering deeper emotional resonance with people from diverse backgrounds (Afsar et al., 2020). Empirical research confirms that frequent interaction with diverse cultures—digitally or in person—develops stronger cultural empathy (Pedersen and Pope, 2010; Jami et al., 2024). These interactions challenge cultural schemas and encourage inclusive thinking, essential for empathy. Social media’s role in facilitating sustained cultural exchanges further supports this perspective (Lee et al., 2020). By engaging with varied narratives online, individuals gain insights into cultural norms and develop the ability to empathize with others (Kramsch and Uryu, 2020). This understanding is crucial in bridging cultural gaps and fostering inclusivity (Lähdesmäki and Koistinen, 2021).

Thus, diversity of cultural interactions on social networks drives cultural empathy, enriching emotional understanding and societal harmony. By expanding exposure to diverse cultural narratives, social media enhances empathy essential for navigating global complexities.

Cultural adaptability and sustainability are critical for understanding how cultures evolve and remain relevant in a globalized world. Cultural adaptability refers to the ability of individuals and communities to adjust cultural practices and behaviors to meet new environmental and social conditions (Qtaishat et al., 2020). This adaptability facilitates smooth interactions and mutual respect among diverse groups, helping navigate cultural clashes or integration (Wang and Goh, 2020). Cultural sustainability focuses on preserving and continuing cultural heritage across generations despite globalization’s pressures (Soini and Dessein, 2016). It involves safeguarding cultural practices, languages, and beliefs that define a community’s identity while integrating them into broader societal contexts, promoting a diverse yet unified world (Alivizatou-Barakou et al., 2017; Kong et al., 2021). Together, these concepts emphasize the roles of innovation and preservation in cultural evolution.

Cultural empathy is expected to bridge cultural adaptability and sustainability, enabling more profound and effective interactions across diverse cultural landscapes. Empirical research supports this connection. For example, individuals with high cultural empathy are better equipped to adjust behaviors in multicultural settings, a core aspect of adaptability (Thoresen, 2020). This ability to thrive in diverse settings contributes to the long-term sustainability of cultural practices (Kantabutra and Ketprapakorn, 2021). Additionally, fostering environments that value and integrate multiple cultural perspectives ensures the preservation of unique cultural identities, preventing erosion by dominant cultures (Cundiff et al., 2009).

The theory of cultural intelligence (CIT) underpins these relationships, emphasizing that empathetic skills developed through diverse cultural interactions enhance adaptability and integration into different cultural contexts (Thomas et al., 2015). This adaptability is not just about survival but thriving in new environments while respecting and learning from existing cultural frameworks (Qtaishat et al., 2020). Cultural empathy thus acts as a catalyst for adaptability in diverse settings and for preserving cultural heritage, ensuring practices evolve to enrich the global cultural mosaic.

The mediating role of cultural empathy is pivotal in understanding the transformative effects of diverse cultural interactions on cultural adaptability and sustainability. Nurtured through extensive interactions across cultures, cultural empathy facilitates the understanding and application of cultural knowledge in adaptive behaviors (Drummond, 2022). It enhances the capacity to interpret and respond to cultural nuances, supporting adaptive changes while preserving cultural identity (Pedersen and Pope, 2010; Jami et al., 2024). Empathetic individuals are more likely to adopt sustainable practices that honor cultural heritage while adapting to global influences (Kidd, 2019).

Empirical evidence underscores this mediation. For instance, Kong et al. (2020) demonstrate that cultural intelligence significantly influences intercultural adaptation through empathy in service encounters, enabling effective interactions in diverse settings. Similarly, Zheng et al. (2021) found that empathic concern mediates the relationship between cultural backgrounds and social support-seeking behaviors, illustrating empathy’s role in managing relationships and well-being in multicultural environments.

These findings highlight cultural empathy’s ability to bridge cognitive understanding and emotional resonance, enhancing both personal and communal adaptability in diverse cultural contexts. It acts as a crucial intermediary that links theoretical insights with practical actions, ensuring cultural evolution respects heritage while responding to contemporary demands. Thus, cultural empathy fosters a deeper connection between diverse cultural dynamics and adaptive outcomes, making it integral to sustaining cultural practices in a globalized world.

Psychological flexibility refers to an individual’s ability to adapt thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to situational demands while aligning with their values and goals (Doorley et al., 2020). Central to psychological theories such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT, Hayes et al., 2011), psychological flexibility encompasses cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components. Cognitive flexibility involves shifting perspectives to address challenges effectively (Ionescu, 2012). Emotional flexibility is the capacity to manage emotional responses based on context, maintaining balance (Fu et al., 2020). Behavioral flexibility refers to adjusting actions to align with values despite challenges (Lea et al., 2020).

Research highlights the role of psychological flexibility in mental health and well-being by promoting adaptability and resilience. It enables individuals to cope with stress and remain engaged in their goals while responding to life’s challenges with mindfulness (Doorley et al., 2020; Lea et al., 2020). This flexibility ensures responses that are thoughtful rather than impulsive, fostering long-term benefits.

Psychological flexibility is posited to moderate the relationship between the diversity of cultural interactions and cultural empathy by enhancing the capacity to process and integrate diverse cultural experiences. ACT suggests that flexibility aids individuals in remaining open to new experiences without judgment, which is crucial when navigating diverse cultures (Hayes et al., 2011). This openness fosters nuanced understanding, central to developing cultural empathy. For example, individuals with high psychological flexibility navigate complex cultural situations more effectively, adapting behaviors and perspectives to unfamiliar or conflicting norms (Lea et al., 2020). Such adaptability significantly influences how cultural experiences translate into empathetic understanding.

Additionally, psychological flexibility is vital when cultural interactions are challenging or involve conflicting norms. It helps individuals manage emotional responses and maintain curiosity, preventing defensive or insular attitudes (Fu et al., 2020; Doorley et al., 2020). By moderating the relationship between diverse cultural interactions and cultural empathy, psychological flexibility ensures that individuals derive the maximum benefits from cultural diversity. This promotes deeper empathetic engagement, enhancing intercultural competence and fostering better interpersonal relations and cultural integration.

Thus, psychological flexibility moderates the pathway from diverse cultural interactions to cultural empathy, ensuring individuals leverage psychological traits to enhance cultural understanding and cooperation. This theoretical insight underscores its importance in promoting effective engagement across cultural boundaries.

Psychological flexibility moderates the mediated relationships between the diversity of cultural interactions and both cultural adaptability and sustainability through cultural empathy. Individuals with high psychological flexibility are better at adjusting their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in response to new cultural experiences (Lea et al., 2020). This adaptability enhances the impact of diverse cultural interactions on cultural empathy, enabling better integration of cultural information (Giovannetti et al., 2022). Consequently, their enhanced cultural empathy translates into higher adaptability and sustainability. High psychological flexibility allows individuals to navigate cultural differences without becoming defensive, fostering deeper empathetic connections essential for adapting to and sustaining cultural practices (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015; Sánchez-Millán et al., 2022). Conversely, low psychological flexibility hinders the ability to process and adapt to diverse cultural interactions, weakening cultural empathy and its positive effects on adaptability and sustainability. These individuals may resist behavioral changes required for integrating new cultural insights. Empirical evidence supports this moderated mediation. Dooley et al. (2020) show that psychological flexibility enhances individuals’ capacity to cope with complex environments, while Biglan (2009) finds that higher flexibility improves interpersonal relationships and adaptation to social norms, both critical for cultural adaptability and sustainability.

In summary, psychological flexibility amplifies or diminishes the effects of cultural interactions on adaptability and sustainability through cultural empathy, emphasizing its pivotal role in enhancing intercultural competence.

The conceptual model of the study is presented in Figure 1.

The methodology for this study on cultural sustainability through social networks in China adopts a quantitative research design to explore how diversity in cultural interactions among social media users influences cultural empathy, adaptability, and sustainability. This design is suitable for testing the hypothesized relationships and effects at scale, enabling the use of statistical analysis to interpret the data collected from the target population.

In our study, we employed a series of Likert-scale questionnaires adapted from established measures to assess various constructs related to cultural sustainability through social networks. These questionnaires were designed on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), allowing for nuanced responses to each statement. The diversity of cultural interactions scale was adapted from existing studies on cross-cultural engagement and social interaction (Caiazza and Volpe, 2015; Howitt, 2005). A sample item from this scale is “I regularly interact with people from cultures different from my own.” For cultural empathy, we used items derived from research on emotional intelligence and cross-cultural communication (Pedersen and Pope, 2010; Jami et al., 2024; Miao et al., 2020). An example item from this measure is “I can easily understand the feelings of people from different cultural backgrounds. The cultural adaptability scale items were adapted from works on cultural intelligence and adaptability in diverse settings (Qtaishat et al., 2020; Wang and Goh, 2020). A representative item is “I quickly adjust my behavior to be appropriate in different cultural contexts.” Cultural sustainability was measured using items influenced by studies on cultural preservation and the impact of globalization on cultural practices (Alivizatou-Barakou et al., 2017; Ergashev and Farxodjonova, 2020; Soini and Dessein, 2016). One such item from the scale is “I support initiatives that promote the preservation of cultural heritage.” Lastly, the psychological flexibility scale was adapted based on research linking cognitive, emotional, and behavioral flexibility to effective problem-solving and adaptation in varied contexts (Doorley et al., 2020; Fu et al., 2018; Ionescu, 2012; Lea et al., 2020). A typical item from this scale is “I can think about problems from multiple viewpoints.” All questionnaire items were initially developed in English and then translated into Chinese using Brislin’s (1970) model of back-translation to ensure linguistic and conceptual accuracy. This rigorous translation process guarantees that the measures are culturally and contextually appropriate for the Chinese audience, maintaining the integrity and reliability of the data collected.

In our study, we utilized the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach to analyze the data collected from the surveys. This analytical strategy is particularly suitable for exploratory research where the goal is to build and expand theoretical models (Hair et al., 2017). The analysis was divided into two key phases: the measurement model and the structural model. First, the measurement model was assessed to confirm the reliability and validity of the constructs. This involved evaluating the internal consistency of the scales, convergent validity, and discriminant validity using criteria such as Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, Average variance extracted (AVE), and the Fornell-Larcker criterion. Ensuring robust measurement models helps in substantiating that the scales adequately represent the latent constructs they are supposed to measure. Subsequently, the structural model was analyzed to examine the hypothesized relationships between the constructs. This phase focused on the path coefficients, the significance of these relationships (using bootstrapping as recommended by Hair et al., 2017), and the overall model fit. The structural model analysis allows us to test the direct and indirect effects within the model, providing insights into the dynamics of cultural sustainability as influenced by social network interactions, mediated by cultural empathy, and moderated by psychological flexibility. This dual-phase approach using PLS-SEM ensures a thorough examination of both the measurement properties of the data and the structural relationships between constructs, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of the model under investigation.

In Table 1, the assessment of multicollinearity involves analyzing the variance inflation factors (VIF) for the variables: diversity of cultural interactions, cultural empathy, psychological flexibility, cultural adaptability, and cultural sustainability. The results show that the variance inflation factors for these variables are within acceptable limits, indicating that multicollinearity is not a concern for this analysis. This effective handling of multicollinearity ensures that the subsequent regression analysis produces reliable and interpretable results.

Table 2 presents the assessment of reliability and validity of constructs used in the study. The reliability of each construct is robust, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha (α) and composite reliability (CR) scores, all of which are above the generally accepted threshold of 0.7, suggesting that the items within each construct consistently measure the same concept. For diversity of cultural interactions, the alpha and composite reliability scores are 0.889 and 0.921 respectively, with an average variance extracted (AVE) of 0.731, which exceeds the recommended value of 0.5, indicating a good level of convergent validity. The factor loadings of the individual items range from 0.732 to 0.965, all above the acceptable threshold of 0.7, further confirming the construct’s validity. Cultural empathy also shows strong reliability with alpha and composite reliability values of 0.871 and 0.901. However, the AVE is 0.569, which is marginally above the cutoff, suggesting adequate, but not strong, convergent validity. The factor loadings for cultural empathy items vary from 0.767 to 0.872, demonstrating sufficient item reliability. Psychological flexibility exhibits alpha and composite reliability scores of 0.858 and 0.889. The AVE for psychological flexibility is 0.634, indicating satisfactory convergent validity. The factor loadings for this construct are somewhat varied, with one item as low as 0.615 but others well above the 0.7 mark, overall supporting the construct’s reliability. Cultural adaptability’s reliability scores are 0.853 for alpha and 0.885 for CR, with an AVE of 0.667, showing good internal consistency and convergent validity. The factor loadings for cultural adaptability items are strong, mostly above the 0.7 line, confirming the construct’s validity. Finally, cultural sustainability has alpha and CR scores of 0.812 and 0.847, and an AVE of 0.690. All factor loadings for cultural sustainability exceed 0.7, emphasizing robust item reliability and construct validity. Overall, these results confirm that the measurement models are reliable and valid, providing a strong foundation for further structural model analysis.

Tables 3, 4 provide critical assessments regarding the discriminant validity of the constructs in the study. Table 3 utilizes the Fornell-Larcker criterion, which compares the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct with the correlations among constructs. According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), for adequate discriminant validity, the square root of the AVE of each construct should be greater than the correlations between that construct and any other construct. In this case, the diagonal elements (which represent the square root of AVEs) are all greater than the off-diagonal elements in their respective rows and columns. Table 4 assesses the discriminant validity using the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) of correlations, a more recent and stringent criterion suggested by Henseler et al. (2015). An HTMT value less than 0.85 is typically indicative of adequate discriminant validity. The HTMT ratios reported, such as 0.463 between diversity of cultural interactions and cultural empathy and 0.602 between cultural empathy and psychological flexibility, are all well below the 0.85 threshold, further supporting the discriminant validity of the constructs.

Table 5 presents the assessment of the structural model, detailing the relationships within the model, along with their path values, significance levels, t-values, R-squared values, effect sizes (F²), and variance accounted for (VAF) where applicable. This comprehensive analysis helps in understanding the direct, total, indirect, and moderated effects of the constructs involved in the study.

The theoretical implications of this study are profound, enhancing our understanding of the interplay between cultural interactions, empathy, and psychological flexibility within the context of globalized social networks. By elucidating these dynamics, the research contributes significantly to several key areas of theoretical discourse.

Firstly, this study enriches the CIT by empirically validating the theory’s propositions regarding the role of cultural interactions in developing cultural empathy. The study demonstrates that diverse cultural interactions, facilitated through social networks (Zhang et al., 2022), not only increase cultural knowledge but also enhance the empathetic abilities necessary for effective cross-cultural engagement. This finding provides a nuanced understanding of how cognitive and emotional components of cultural intelligence are activated and developed through digital platforms (Zhou and Charoensukmongkol, 2022), expanding the theory’s applicability beyond face-to-face interactions to include virtual environments.

Secondly, the study extends the application of the Contact Hypothesis (Paluck et al., 2019) in digital contexts by showing that online cultural interactions can reduce prejudices and enhance understanding, much like direct interpersonal contacts. By demonstrating the mediating role of cultural empathy in this process, the research bridges the gap between abstract cultural exchanges and tangible cultural adaptation and sustainability. This mediational insight suggests that the Contact Hypothesis may be a useful framework for examining the impacts of digital communication on intercultural relations, encouraging further theoretical development in this direction.

Additionally, the examination of psychological flexibility as a moderator in the relationships between cultural interactions, empathy, and cultural outcomes introduces a new dimension to the study of intercultural communication and adaptation. This aspect of the research highlights the importance of individual differences in cognitive and behavioral flexibility, suggesting that the effects of cultural interactions are not uniform but vary according to individual psychological traits. This finding urges theorists to consider psychological flexibility as a critical factor in models of cultural adaptation and sustainability, potentially leading to more personalized approaches in intercultural training and education programs.

Furthermore, this study’s findings advocate for a more integrated approach to understanding cultural dynamics, where emotional and cognitive components are considered as interconnected rather than isolated factors. This holistic view can facilitate more comprehensive theories that address the complexities of cultural interactions in an increasingly interconnected world.

Overall, the theoretical contributions of this study are substantial, offering fresh perspectives and deepening existing theories within the fields of cultural intelligence, intercultural communication, and psychological flexibility. These insights not only advance academic discourse but also provide a solid foundation for future research to build upon, potentially leading to richer, more effective models of understanding and managing cultural diversity in globalized societies.

The practical implications of this study are significant, offering actionable insights for various sectors including education, corporate settings, policy making, and community development, particularly in enhancing cultural competence and promoting diversity and inclusion.

In summary, the practical applications of this research are broad and impactful, offering guidance for enhancing cultural adaptability and sustainability through strategic use of digital interactions and fostering psychological flexibility across various domains of society.

Despite the contributions of this study, there are several limitations that need to be acknowledged and could serve as avenues for future research. One of the primary limitations is the reliance on self-reported data, which can introduce biases such as social desirability or response bias. Future studies might incorporate more objective measures of cultural interaction and empathy, such as observational data or third-party assessments, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these phenomena. Additionally, while the study utilized a cross-sectional design, which provides a snapshot in time, it does not capture the dynamics of how cultural interactions and empathy evolve over time. Longitudinal studies could be valuable in understanding the long-term effects of diverse cultural interactions on empathy and adaptability.

Another limitation is the study’s focus on a specific cultural or demographic context, which may not generalize across different populations or cultural settings. Future research could replicate this study in various cultural contexts to examine the universality of the findings. Moreover, exploring the impact of different types of social media platforms might also yield insights, as different platforms may facilitate different types of interactions and thus may influence cultural empathy and adaptability in diverse ways. Finally, integrating qualitative methods could enrich the quantitative findings, providing deeper insights into the personal experiences and nuances of cultural interactions that are not captured through survey data alone. These approaches would significantly expand the understanding of the complex interplay between cultural interactions, empathy, and psychological flexibility.