Socio-emotional development in higher education and teacher training is essential for effective teaching and learning, encompassing emotional intelligence (EI), social skills, and stress management. Integrating socio-emotional learning (SEL) into curricula helps educators address classroom challenges and foster inclusive environments. Teachers with strong socio-emotional skills improve classroom dynamics, job satisfaction, and student outcomes, including mental health and academic success (Molina-Moreno et al., 2024; Shankland et al., 2024). A holistic approach combining emotional and cognitive competencies enhances student well-being and future success (IndellIcato, 2024). Implementation requires aligning practices with theories like Goleman’s, focusing on empathy and stress management, and using robust evaluation models (Calderón Calderón, 2024). Resistance to change in traditional models highlights the need for a pedagogical shift to integrate emotional and cognitive processes (IndellIcato, 2024). Despite challenges, SEL offers transformative opportunities for education (Shankland et al., 2024).

The significance of emotion vocabulary in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) textbooks has gained recognition in recent years, as it plays a crucial role in enabling learners to communicate effectively and develop sociopragmatic competence, which is essential for navigating social interactions. Despite this, emotion vocabulary remains underrepresented in many EFL textbooks, leaving learners ill-prepared to express emotions in a foreign language (Dewaele, 2015). Some of the progress highlighted include improvements in the incorporation of emotion vocabulary in certain textbooks (Sánchez and Pérez-García, 2020), yet a significant gap persists. This deficiency is concerning, as research shows that exposure to emotion-laden words and texts can positively influence vocabulary acquisition and retention, with neutral and negative emotion-laden texts predicting better learning outcomes than positive texts (Driver, 2022). Furthermore, teachers themselves often have a limited emotional vocabulary, which can hinder their ability to support students’ development of a robust emotional lexicon (Alzina and Guiu, 2018). Addressing the emotional vocabulary gap in EFL textbooks and instruction is essential for enhancing learners’ language skills and helping them use language in socially and emotionally appropriate ways.

Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a crucial role in enhancing language learning, particularly for pre-service EFL teachers, as it significantly contributes to teacher effectiveness, student achievement, and classroom management (Coombe et al., 2020). Research shows a positive relationship between teachers’ EI and students’ language achievement (Al Jaberi et al., 2024), and EI can be developed through reflective practices such as journaling and classroom discussions, which help teachers build self-awareness and emotional regulation (Zadorozhna et al., 2018). For pre-service teachers, EI awareness impacts their teaching experiences and efficacy (Dick-Bursztyn, 2023; Koçoğlu, 2011). Incorporating EI training in EFL education fosters emotional awareness and communication skills, enhancing students’ language competence (Balasubramanian and Al-Mahrooqi, 2016). Furthermore, explicit instruction in emotion vocabulary plays a vital role in improving pre-service teachers’ emotional awareness and communication abilities, as emotion-laden texts have been shown to aid in vocabulary retention and comprehension, especially when neutral or negative emotional contexts are involved (Driver, 2022). Therefore, integrating EI instruction in EFL teacher training programs is essential to promote emotional awareness, improve teaching effectiveness, and support classroom dynamics (Alrefaai and Shah, 2020).

Fostering emotional intelligence (EI) in pre-service Chilean EFL teachers is increasingly recognized as a critical element for effective teaching, teacher well-being, and classroom management. EI, which encompasses the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one’s emotions and the emotions of others, is essential for teachers to navigate the emotional complexities of the classroom and maintain high levels of job performance and satisfaction (Extremera and Fernández-Berrocal, 2004). In Chile, as in many other countries, teachers face stressful environments, making EI crucial for preventing burnout and promoting resilience. Research indicates that teachers with higher EI levels are more effective in managing stress, improving student outcomes, and fostering positive classroom environments (Vesely-Maillefer and Saklofske, 2018). However, despite its importance, EI is often underdeveloped in Chilean pre-service teacher training programs, limiting the ability of new educators to manage their emotional well-being and engage effectively with students (Valenzuela-Zambrano et al., 2021). Many Chilean teachers perceive themselves as having low levels of EI, which can hinder their ability to manage classroom dynamics and cope with the emotional demands of the profession (Valenzuela-Zambrano et al., 2021). This self-perception is linked to the inadequate integration of EI training in teacher education programs (Muñoz, 2022). Without comprehensive EI training, pre-service teachers enter the workforce without the emotional tools needed to manage stress, avoid burnout, and foster positive relationships with students and colleagues. This lack of emotional preparedness contributes to lower job satisfaction, increased teacher turnover, and diminished classroom effectiveness (Delgado-Bello et al., 2021).

While the significance of emotional vocabulary in EFL education is increasingly acknowledged, prior research has several limitations that hinder its practical application. For instance, studies often focus on the presence of emotional vocabulary in textbooks without critically analyzing its pedagogical implications or its alignment with emotional intelligence development (Kang, 2022; Thuy, 2024). Additionally, there is a lack of exploration into how cultural contexts influence the selection and teaching of emotional vocabulary. Research has shown that cultural differences significantly impact emotional expression, with some cultures emphasizing collectivist emotional norms, such as empathy and harmony (Kikutani et al., 2024), while others prioritize individual emotional expression and independence (Imada, 2012). These cultural nuances play a vital role in shaping how emotional vocabulary is represented in teaching materials, potentially limiting their relevance in diverse educational contexts. Addressing these gaps, this study not only examines the presence and categorization of emotional vocabulary in EFL textbooks but also considers how cultural factors influence its pedagogical application, providing a more comprehensive framework for fostering emotional intelligence in pre-service teachers.

Despite growing recognition of the importance of emotional intelligence (EI) and emotion vocabulary in language learning, existing EFL (English as a Foreign Language) materials, including popular textbooks like the Headway series, which is widely used to train pre-service EFL teachers in Chile, often lack a systematic focus on integrating emotional intelligence training and emotion vocabulary development. The underrepresentation of emotion vocabulary leaves learners ill-equipped to communicate emotions effectively in a foreign language, impacting their sociopragmatic competence and emotional awareness. Moreover, pre-service EFL teachers are not adequately prepared to teach emotional vocabulary, which could foster emotional intelligence in their future classrooms. This lack of emphasis on emotional intelligence and emotion vocabulary in current EFL materials necessitates a closer investigation to bridge this gap.

Thus, this study seeks to address the critical gap in the integration of emotional vocabulary in EFL materials and its potential to foster emotional intelligence (EI) in pre-service teachers. Specifically, it aims to quantify, categorize, and classify emotion vocabulary in the widely used Headway series and develop a systematic teaching model to enhance socio-emotional competencies in EFL teacher training. The following research questions guide this investigation:

By addressing these questions, the study aims to build a foundation for the systematic inclusion of emotional vocabulary in EFL teacher training and explore its pedagogical implications for fostering EI. The objectives are to provide a comprehensive analysis of emotional vocabulary in the Headway series and propose a progressive teaching model that scaffolds emotional vocabulary instruction to support pre-service teachers’ socio-emotional and linguistic development.

The findings for Research Objective 1, which sought to quantify the emotion vocabulary across all levels of the Headway series, reveal a progressive increase in emotional vocabulary as proficiency levels advance. At the beginner and elementary levels (Figure 1), the count is relatively low, with approximately 40 words at the beginner stage and slightly fewer at the elementary level. However, the pre-intermediate and intermediate levels show a marked increase, particularly at the intermediate level, where the count rises to nearly 90 words. The most significant growth occurs at the advanced level, where the number of emotion vocabulary words exceeds 100. This progression reflects a deliberate pedagogical strategy, gradually introducing more complex emotional language as learners become more proficient. The lower counts at the early stages indicate a potential gap in early exposure to emotion vocabulary, suggesting that greater emphasis on emotional expressions at these levels could enhance emotional intelligence development in learners.

The results for Research Objective 2, which focused on categorizing and quantifying emotion vocabulary into basic emotions (joy, anger, fear, sadness, surprise, and disgust) across all levels of the Headway series (Figure 2), reveal distinct trends. Joy is the most frequent emotion across all levels, particularly prominent at the beginner level, suggesting a focus on positive emotions early in language learning to build confidence. Anger and fear are moderately represented at all levels, with a noticeable increase at intermediate and advanced stages, reflecting the gradual introduction of more complex and negative emotions as proficiency grows. Sadness shows a steady presence across levels, with a significant rise at the higher stages, indicating its role in advanced sociopragmatic competence. Surprise and disgust are less represented overall but increase slightly at the upper-intermediate and advanced levels, highlighting their complexity and later introduction in emotional vocabulary development. These findings suggest a structured progression of emotional vocabulary, with simpler, positive emotions introduced at lower levels and more complex, negative emotions reserved for advanced learners.

The findings for Research Objective 3, which aimed to classify and quantify emotion vocabulary by valence (positive, negative, neutral) across all levels of the Headway series (Figure 3), reveal that negative emotion vocabulary is dominant across all proficiency levels, from beginner to advanced. This suggests a strong focus on teaching learners to express and understand negative emotions, which are essential for real-life communication and emotional literacy. Positive emotion vocabulary is consistently present but less frequent, with a slight increase at intermediate and advanced stages, indicating an emphasis on handling complex emotional communication involving both positive and negative contexts. Neutral emotion vocabulary, while the least represented, progressively increases at higher proficiency levels, particularly at intermediate and advanced stages, suggesting its role in facilitating nuanced emotional expressions as learners’ language skills develop. These findings reflect a pedagogical strategy that prepares learners to navigate both positive and negative emotional interactions while gradually introducing more subtle, neutral emotions in advanced communication scenarios.

Research Objective 4, which sought to categorize and quantify emotion vocabulary by word class (verb, noun, adjective, adverb) across all levels of the Headway series (Figure 4), indicate that verbs and nouns dominate emotional vocabulary across all proficiency levels. Verbs, consistently represented, highlight the importance of action-oriented emotional expressions, while nouns, particularly prominent at the intermediate level, allow learners to discuss emotions more abstractly. Adjectives play a significant role, especially at higher levels, helping learners describe emotions in nuanced ways. Adverbs are the least represented word class, with their frequency increasing at the upper-intermediate and advanced stages, suggesting they are introduced later to refine emotional expression. This progression demonstrates a structured approach, starting with fundamental emotional vocabulary and gradually incorporating more complex descriptive language as learners advance in proficiency.

Counting the number of emotion vocabulary words across all levels of the Headway series showed a clear progression in emotional vocabulary as proficiency levels increase. This aligns with prior research emphasizing the role of emotion vocabulary in both language acquisition and the development of emotional intelligence (Sánchez and Pérez-García, 2020). While the introduction highlighted a general scarcity of emotion vocabulary in EFL materials (Dewaele, 2015), the results indicate that the Headway series employs a deliberate strategy to gradually introduce more complex emotional language at higher proficiency levels, which supports emotional intelligence growth. This gradual increase reflects emotional intelligence theory, where exposure to simpler emotions at earlier stages helps build self-awareness and social competence over time (Goleman, 2020). However, the relatively low inclusion of emotion vocabulary at the beginner and elementary levels raises concerns about early exposure, mirroring criticisms in the literature that call for greater emphasis on emotional language at lower proficiency levels to support early emotional intelligence development (Alzina and Guiu, 2018). Thus, while the Headway series demonstrates improvements, the findings suggest a need for stronger focus on emotional vocabulary inclusion at the initial stages to fully realize the potential of emotional intelligence teaching in EFL contexts.

Addressing findings related to Research Objective 2, which focused on categorizing and quantifying emotion vocabulary within the Headway series according to the six basic emotions: joy, anger, fear, sadness, surprise, and disgust. The analysis reveals notable patterns in the distribution of these emotions, providing insights into how emotional language is represented across the series. Joy emerged as the most frequent emotion, particularly at the beginner level, which aligns with the introduction’s emphasis on positive emotions as foundational for building learner confidence (Sánchez and Pérez-García, 2020). The lower representation of complex negative emotions, such as disgust, at early proficiency levels supports the literature’s suggestion that advanced learners are better equipped to handle nuanced emotional language (Bąk, 2022b). The gradual introduction of more complex negative emotions at intermediate and advanced stages reflects the progressive development of emotional vocabulary, which parallels learners’ linguistic growth and sociopragmatic competence (Dewaele, 2015). While emotions such as joy and sadness are relatively balanced across levels, the late inclusion of emotions like surprise and disgust indicates a deliberate effort to introduce more challenging emotional vocabulary only after learners have built a stronger linguistic foundation. This finding supports the idea that negative emotions play a significant role in vocabulary retention and emotional intelligence development at higher levels (Driver, 2022). However, the limited presence of negative emotions at the beginner and elementary stages raises concerns about the early development of emotional literacy, reinforcing the literature’s call for a more comprehensive integration of emotional vocabulary from the start to enhance learners’ emotional awareness (Alzina and Guiu, 2018).

One of the objectives of this study was to classify and quantify emotion vocabulary by valence (positive, negative, neutral) across all levels of the Headway series, revealed a dominance of negative emotion vocabulary throughout the proficiency levels. This aligns with Driver’s (2022) claim that exposure to negative and neutral emotion-laden texts enhance vocabulary retention and supports better learning outcomes. However, this finding contrasts with the introduction’s emphasis on the importance of positive emotions, particularly in early language acquisition (Sánchez and Pérez-García, 2020). Although positive emotions are present across all levels, their frequency remains lower compared to negative emotions, especially at intermediate and advanced stages, which suggests a pedagogical focus on preparing learners for more complex emotional communication. The gradual introduction of neutral emotion vocabulary at higher proficiency levels is consistent with the literature, which indicates that neutral emotional expressions gain importance as learners’ fluency increases (Bąk, 2022b). While the prominence of negative emotion vocabulary may support advanced language acquisition, the balance between positive and neutral emotions could be improved at lower levels to foster early emotional intelligence development (Dewaele, 2015), which is crucial for pre-service teachers to manage emotions in educational contexts.

Categorizing and quantifying emotion vocabulary by word class (verb, noun, adjective, adverb) across all levels of the Headway series revealed that verbs and nouns dominate the emotional vocabulary throughout all proficiency levels. This aligns with the literature’s emphasis on the role of verbs in facilitating action-oriented emotional expressions and nouns in enabling more abstract emotional discussions (Majid, 2012). However, adjectives, which are critical for precise emotional descriptions, only become prominent at higher levels, potentially limiting learners’ ability to describe emotions with nuance in earlier stages (Rijkhoff, 2007). The lower representation of adverbs, especially at lower levels, suggests a gap in providing learners with the tools to express emotions with subtlety, a skill important for advanced communication (Dar, 2018). While the structured progression of emotional vocabulary development aligns with theoretical frameworks from the literature, the findings highlight the need for a more balanced inclusion of word classes, particularly at earlier levels, to enhance learners’ ability to express and regulate emotions from the start of their language learning journey.

This investigation focused on developing a systematic teaching model to foster emotional intelligence (EI) in pre-service EFL teachers, align with the theoretical foundations discussed in the literature but also reveal areas for improvement. The model’s progressive integration of more complex emotional vocabulary as proficiency increases reflects Goleman’s (2020) theory of emotional intelligence, where emotional awareness and regulation are built gradually. This approach is consistent with Sánchez and Pérez-García’s (2020) emphasis on the importance of emotion-laden vocabulary for enhancing both language acquisition and EI development. However, despite the model’s effectiveness in scaffolding emotional vocabulary instruction across proficiency levels, the underrepresentation of emotional vocabulary at the beginner and elementary stages, as noted in earlier findings, may limit the early development of self-awareness and emotional regulation in pre-service teachers. This gap suggests a need for more balanced inclusion of emotional vocabulary across all levels to ensure early exposure to emotional concepts, which is crucial for the development of EI from the outset (Dewaele, 2015). While the model holds significant potential, addressing these gaps would enhance its effectiveness in fostering emotional intelligence in future educators.

Enhanced emotional intelligence (EI) in pre-service EFL teachers, as fostered by the proposed systematic vocabulary teaching model, can significantly improve classroom management, communication, and student outcomes. Research indicates that emotionally intelligent teachers are better equipped to manage the emotional dynamics of the classroom, leading to more effective classroom management and a more supportive learning environment (Goleman, 2020). Teachers with strong EI skills, such as self-awareness and emotional regulation, are able to communicate more empathetically and clearly with their students, which fosters trust and rapport, key elements for successful learning experiences (Coombe et al., 2020). Additionally, the ability to recognize and respond to students’ emotional states allows teachers to address emotional barriers to learning, ultimately improving student engagement and performance (Sun et al., 2024). The model’s emphasis on progressively building emotional vocabulary helps teachers develop these essential skills, which are critical not only for their professional well-being but also for promoting positive student outcomes, such as increased motivation and language proficiency. Consequently, the integration of emotional intelligence through language instruction supports both teacher effectiveness and student success in EFL contexts.

The theoretical and conceptual frameworks in this study play a pivotal role in guiding the research and ensuring its alignment with existing literature on emotional intelligence (EI) and language acquisition. Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Theory serves as the theoretical foundation, emphasizing the importance of emotional awareness, regulation, empathy, and social skills. This framework justifies the need to incorporate emotional vocabulary into EFL teaching, aligning with prior research that underscores the role of EI in enhancing classroom management, communication, and student outcomes (Mercer, 2016). The conceptual framework further connects the study’s objectives by outlining how emotion vocabulary is categorized and measured across the Headway series and how these findings inform the development of a systematic teaching model. This clear relationship between emotion vocabulary and EI development reflects the literature’s call for a more structured integration of emotional concepts into language teaching (Sánchez and Pérez-García, 2020; Dewaele, 2015). Ultimately, these frameworks ensure that the study is methodologically sound and contribute to advancing both EI and language pedagogy, providing a solid foundation for enhancing pre-service teachers’ professional efficacy and emotional competence.

The primary advantage of the proposed Systematic Vocabulary Teaching model lies in its direct focus on developing emotional literacy and emotional intelligence (EI) skills among pre-service teachers, positioning them at the core of the intervention while also acknowledging the indirect benefits for their students. By emphasizing their self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy, the model directly supports their ability to navigate complex classroom dynamics, manage stress, and foster positive relationships with students (Jiang et al., 2022). This targeted focus ensures alignment with the model’s primary objective of equipping educators with the skills necessary for effective classroom management and communication. However, the indirect impact on students is also significant, as emotionally literate teachers are better positioned to create supportive learning environments that enhance student engagement and well-being (Gabryś-Barker, 2018). While the model primarily evaluates teacher outcomes, tools like classroom climate surveys or the Classroom Assessment Scoring System could further capture these secondary effects, emphasizing both teacher and student development (Adams et al., 2021).

The systematic and progressive teaching model proposed in this study holds significant potential for adaptation to other EFL teaching materials beyond the Headway series, offering broader applicability across diverse educational contexts. The model’s core framework, which scaffolds emotional vocabulary instruction from simple to complex and aligns it with socio-emotional competencies, can be tailored to fit the structure and thematic focus of various EFL resources. For instance, textbooks with a business English focus could emphasize vocabulary related to professional emotional contexts, such as negotiation or conflict resolution (Cui et al., 2021), while materials for academic English could prioritize emotions tied to critical thinking and collaboration (Mestre-Mestre, 2020). Additionally, the model’s flexibility allows for cultural and demographic adaptations, ensuring alignment with specific learner needs and socio-cultural norms. To facilitate this broader application, practical guidelines can be developed, such as identifying and categorizing emotional vocabulary from alternative materials and mapping it to appropriate emotional intelligence competencies. By incorporating such adaptability, the proposed model ensures its relevance for educators working with a wide range of teaching resources, fostering emotional intelligence development in diverse learning environments.

Evaluating the impact of the proposed scaffolded model on the development of teachers’ emotional literacy and emotional intelligence (EI) is essential for understanding the effective implementation of the model. By employing pre-and post-assessments, reflective journals, and role-play evaluations, the model provides a comprehensive framework for tracking progress in self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy (Alemdar and Anilan, 2020). Reflective journals reveal changes in teachers’ capacity to identify and regulate emotions effectively, aligning with the Emotional Literacy Skills Scale’s validated components (Haghani et al., 2014). Role-play scenarios and simulation feedback demonstrate real-time evidence of applying emotional vocabulary and managing classroom dynamics, reinforcing the measurable benefits of emotional competence training (Fincias et al., 2018). Moreover, a focus on teacher and learner interactions supports the promotion of emotional awareness as essential for fostering collaboration and achieving educational goals (Herguner, 2017). By systematically evaluating each competency with these diverse tools, the model not only aligns with theoretical frameworks but also ensures its practical relevance in real-world teaching contexts (Alemdar and Anilan, 2020).

The findings of this study underscore the importance of considering cultural factors in the pedagogical application of emotional vocabulary teaching. Emotional expressions are deeply rooted in cultural norms and values, influencing how emotions are categorized, prioritized, and taught in educational materials. For example, cultures with collectivist orientations, such as Chile, may emphasize emotional vocabulary related to social harmony and empathy (Kikutani et al., 2024), while individualistic cultures may prioritize vocabulary reflecting personal achievement and self-expression (Imada, 2012). This cultural variability suggests that emotional vocabulary in EFL textbooks like the Headway series may not fully address the needs of diverse learner populations. The proposed teaching model bridges this gap by incorporating cultural awareness into vocabulary instruction, encouraging educators to adapt emotional vocabulary teaching to reflect the sociocultural contexts of their learners. Activities such as reflective journaling and role-playing can be tailored to highlight culturally relevant emotions, fostering both linguistic proficiency and intercultural competence (Russell, 1991). By integrating cultural sensitivity, the model ensures that emotional vocabulary instruction aligns with the diverse emotional frameworks of learners, enhancing its relevance and effectiveness in fostering emotional intelligence.

Based on the findings and discussion in this study, several recommendations emerge for teachers, higher education institutions, and policymakers. For teachers, it is crucial to integrate emotional vocabulary instruction within the EFL curriculum at all proficiency levels to foster emotional intelligence (EI) in students. Educators should employ strategies that enhance self-awareness, emotional regulation, and empathy, facilitating not only language acquisition but also emotional literacy (Coombe et al., 2020). Higher education institutions should incorporate EI training into pre-service teacher education programs, ensuring that future educators are well-equipped with both linguistic and emotional skills necessary for managing classroom dynamics and improving student outcomes (Goleman, 2020). This training can include reflective practices, role-playing, and emotional vocabulary instruction to help students develop critical emotional competencies. Policymakers should consider revising teacher education curricula to mandate the inclusion of emotional intelligence development, recognizing its impact on teacher well-being, student engagement, and overall educational success (Mercer and Gkonou, 2017). Policies promoting EI-focused professional development for in-service teachers should also be encouraged to continuously improve teaching effectiveness and emotional awareness in the classroom. These recommendations ensure a holistic approach to language education, integrating emotional and linguistic development for both teachers and students.

This study aimed to investigate the role of emotional vocabulary in fostering emotional intelligence (EI) in pre-service EFL teachers, with a specific focus on the Headway series textbooks. The general objective was to count, categorize, and classify emotion vocabulary across different proficiency levels while using the findings to develop a systematic teaching model for enhancing EI in pre-service teachers. The findings revealed a progressive increase in emotion vocabulary across proficiency levels, with more complex emotions and word classes introduced at higher stages. While positive emotions were more prominent at the beginner level, negative and neutral emotions increased in frequency at advanced stages, supporting the development of self-regulation and empathy.

The findings also have practical implications for teacher training programs. It is recommended that emotional vocabulary and EI development be incorporated into pre-service teacher education, preparing future educators to navigate the emotional complexities of the classroom. Teacher education programs should include specific training modules on emotional intelligence, such as reflective practices, role-playing, and emotional vocabulary instruction. Such training would help pre-service teachers develop key EI skills, including self-awareness, empathy, and emotional regulation, which are essential for maintaining positive classroom environments and improving student engagement.

Despite these valuable insights, several limitations were identified. First, the analysis was restricted to the Headway series, which may not fully represent the diversity of EFL teaching materials used worldwide. Additionally, the study focused primarily on the quantitative aspects of emotional vocabulary without fully exploring the contextual nuances of how these emotions are taught or interpreted by learners. Future research should expand the scope to include other textbook series and incorporate more qualitative analyses that explore how pre-service teachers engage with emotional vocabulary in real-life teaching scenarios.

Future work could also explore the long-term impact of systematic emotional vocabulary instruction on both teacher efficacy and student outcomes, particularly in diverse cultural and linguistic contexts. Moreover, further studies could develop and test emotional intelligence-focused curricula that integrate emotional vocabulary with reflective practices, role-playing, and classroom discussions to assess their effectiveness in fostering EI in pre-service teachers across different teaching environments. Overall, the study underscores the importance of integrating emotional intelligence into language education, suggesting that a more comprehensive approach to emotional vocabulary instruction could enhance both teacher development and student learning outcomes.