Much research on physical activity (PA) draws on self-determination theory (SDT) to examine factors such as motivation and the psychological processes associated with wellbeing (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2002; Ryan and Deci, 2000; Franco et al., 2017; Moreno et al., 2008; Ntoumanis and Standage, 2009). SDT is a macro-theory of motivation and personality that comprises five sub-theories, including that of basic psychological needs (BPN) (Stover et al., 2017). According to BPN theory, there are three human needs—autonomy, competence and relatedness—that are innate, universal and essential, and therefore must be met in order to ensure optimal health and functioning. The need for autonomy refers to a person’s self-perception as the causal locus of their actions, and that those actions are not determined by external factors (Ryan and Deci, 2007). Perception of autonomy is a positive predictor of satisfaction of the other two BNP, which in turn predicts greater self-determined motivation (Standage et al., 2006). The need for competence refers to the ability to perform tasks of varying complexity. It is positively associated with good stress regulation, self-esteem and wellbeing, and negatively associated with depression, anxiety and low self-esteem (Parfitt et al., 2009). Finally, relatedness is the extent to which a person feels securely part of a group or connected with others within his or her social context. BPN may thus be seen as psychological mediators that influence intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and demotivation, and satisfaction of those needs may be seen as an essential component of human wellbeing and development (Ryan and Deci, 2017; Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).

Satisfaction of BPN among people with Intellectual Disability (ID) has been shown to be affected by their living, working and educational environments (Akkerman et al., 2018; Wehmeyer and Bolding, 1999), where self-determination, autonomy and satisfaction predict improved wellbeing and educational outcomes. SDT is particularly relevant to studies with populations with ID because it focuses on satisfying BPN fundamental to wellbeing and intrinsic motivation, independent of cognitive abilities. This theory provides a framework for understanding how people with ID can develop a sense of control and self-direction, which is crucial for their social inclusion and personal development. However, it assumes the limitation that the application of SDT may require specific adaptations to consider the cognitive and communication barriers present in this population. Among other adaptations, it is necessary to develop assessment instruments that are explicitly adapted to them (Katz and Cohen, 2014). Despite these limitations, studies have found SDT valid and applicable to people with intellectual disabilities (Behzadnia et al., 2022; Emond-Pelletier and Joussemet, 2017; Frielink et al., 2018). American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2010) views self-determination as a key goal for individuals with ID.

Compared to the general population without disabilities, individuals with ID encounter more discrimination and social marginalization related to gender and social class, fewer employment prospects, and limited access to education, sports, and leisure activities (Stevenson, 2009; Van Lindert et al., 2023). Despite the proven advantages of adapted physical activity (APA) and sports for individuals with ID, there are limited tailored sports opportunities for people with these needs. People with ID often experience low physical activity, poor diet, limited participation in sports, and high levels of sedentary behaviour, leading to poorer physical, mental, and social health, as well as reduced life expectancy (Borland et al., 2020; Hansen et al., 2023; Robertson et al., 2000; Temple et al., 2006; Wouters et al., 2019). In recent decades, sports for individuals with ID have grown significantly, driven by greater visibility, social recognition, and funding for Paralympic sports (Leardy and Sanz, 2018). However, there is a distinction between Paralympic sports and non-competitive activities focused on recreation rather than performance (Pérez-Tejero, 2024; Solves, 2018). Instead, the focus is on enabling people with ID to participate in sports activities that enhance their wellbeing and quality of life through APA or sports. In these instances, sports and recreational programmes designed to promote the inclusion and integration of individuals with ID do not enjoy the same level of visibility as Paralympic or competitive sports. Consequently, more research is needed on factors affecting quality of life for people with ID (Xiao et al., 2024) and on sports and leisure programmes for this population (Díaz et al., 2019; Evans et al., 2018). Most studies on sport participation in people with ID have focused on competition, performance, barriers, facilitators, and coaches (Mendoza and Gamonales, 2024). However, research on the impact of recreational sports programmes for people with ID remains limited (Arbour-Nicitopoulos et al., 2022; Díaz et al., 2019; Maenhout and Melville, 2024; Mendoza and Gamonales, 2024; Pinilla and Pérez-Tejero, 2017; Pérez-Tejero, 2024).

Researchers agree on the physical, intellectual and psychosocial benefits of adapted physical activity (APA) and sport for people with ID (Bondar et al., 2020; Cabeza-Ruiz et al., 2021; Chinga and Martínez, 2020; Collins and Staples, 2017; Gámez-Calvo et al., 2022; Gamonales et al., 2021; Jacob et al., 2023; Pérez-Tejero and Ocete, 2016; Van Lindert et al., 2023). The relationship between neuropsychology, wellbeing, sports, and intellectual disability is documented in the literature. For example, Eime et al. (2013) highlight the psychological and social benefits of sports participation for mental health and wellbeing, including improved self-esteem and socialisation, crucial for people with ID; Arellano et al. (2024) and Varela et al. (2025). emphasise benefits for athletes with ID, such as psychological wellbeing, a sense of community, social inclusion, autonomy, motivation, and physical gains from recreational sports; White et al. (2017) found that a soccer programme for people with ID enhanced their social, emotional, and personal development, along with enjoyment and team belonging; Mckinnon et al. (2022) demonstrated that sports foster physical improvements, body image, social belonging, leadership, friendships, autonomy, and life skills transferable to daily life. Maenhout and Melville (2024) highlight how physical activity promotes social connectedness, personal growth, and wellbeing for people with ID; Shapiro and Martin (2014) noted that motor competence in sport improves self-esteem, friendships, and reduces loneliness; Tomé et al. (2024) found that physical activity enhances autonomy and daily living skills in individuals with ID. Additionally, research shows that sports enhance executive functions, cognitive flexibility, memory, brain activation, and inhibitory control, stress and anxiety, boost emotional wellbeing and mental health (Komenda et al., 2023; Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2024; Liang et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2024; Xiao et al., 2024). Despite the universal nature of BPN, little research has focused on BPN among athletes with ID. Most studies have centred on neurotypical subjects, with few quantitative studies exploring BPN models or satisfaction through sports and physical activity in people with ID. It is crucial to examine how this theory applies specifically to populations like individuals with ID in Spain.

Research findings indicate that coaching behaviour can be a predictor of satisfaction of BPN among athletes with ID (Komenda et al., 2022), and that more controlling behaviours have a negative impact in this regard (Hu et al., 2023). In support of this, Farrell et al. (2004) identify a relationship between self-determination and intrinsic motivation among athletes with ID, based on a qualitative study involving 38 interviews. Shangraw (2017) explores how coaches can support their athletes’ feelings of autonomy, competence and relatedness, while Pires et al. (2021) descriptive analysis examines the correlation between improvement-and reinforcement-based coaching behaviours and high levels of autonomous motivation, satisfaction with life and positive affect. In relation to support models—including coaching—and the applicability of SDT in this regard, Frielink et al. (2018, p. 45) conclude that “SDT shows potential as a guide towards enhancing subjective wellbeing and thus quality of life of people with ID with a mild to borderline level of functioning through support focused on autonomy.”

Studies show that autonomy, competence and relatedness influence persistence in PA among adolescents without disability. According to Babic et al. (2014), higher perceived competence, fitness, appearance and physical self-concept is associated with higher levels of PA, though it is unclear whether PA improves physical self-concept or vice versa (De la Torre Cruz et al., 2018). Fernández-Bustos et al. (2019) study on the relationship between physical self-concept and PA among adolescents using the physical self-concept subscale of the AF5 self-concept questionnaire (García and Musitu, 2014) shows a significant association between physical self-concept and PA, with sex and age identified as key mediating factors; according to Reigal et al. (2014), this association is higher among athletes who participate in sport or other PA on a regular basis. Relatedness and socialisation (connection and social acceptance) are, likewise, positive predictors of participation in PA (Sánchez and Núñez, 2007; Peres et al., 2012), as are social support networks and emotional ties to family and friends (Balaguer et al., 2008; Cheng et al., 2014). In relation to people with ID, Pan and Davis (2019) report positive impacts on physical self-concept from participating in sports activities; here physical self-concept refers not just to physical appearance but also fitness, strength and sports competence (Goñi et al., 2004).

The rationale for the present study is twofold. Firstly and more generally, the research attempts to fill the gap in the literature regarding the satisfaction of BPN through sport in relation to people with ID. Secondly and more specifically, this study diverges from the more usual focus of research in this area on athletes with ID involved in competitive sporting programmes such as the Special Olympics, in order to examine questions of human growth and adapted sport in relation to a non-competitive recreational sports programme for people with ID with diverse levels of sports skills. In doing so, the study expands and diversifies the existing knowledge about satisfaction of BPN through sport for people with ID.

The general aim of the study is to assess the contribution of the Más Que Tenis (Más Que Tenis—“More Than Just Tennis”) recreational sports programme to the satisfaction of BPN among athletes with ID, and to analyse the relationship between satisfaction of BPN and physical self-concept, motor behaviour, satisfaction with life, adaptive behaviour and gender.

Based on this general aim, the specific aims of the study are:

Based on the specific objectives above, four working hypotheses are proposed.

The study uses a quantitative cross-sectional methodology, based on the following elements.

The results below are presented in four blocks, corresponding to the four specific aims of the research.

The main purpose of this study is to assess the contribution of the Más Que Tenis recreational sports programme to the satisfaction of BPN among athletes with ID, and to analyse the relationship between satisfaction of BPN and physical self-concept, motor behaviour, satisfaction with life, adaptive behaviour and gender.

The high scores reported for all three BPN, and relatedness in particular, contrast with other studies in this area (Komenda et al., 2022), where satisfaction achieved through sports programmes for athletes with ID is highest in relation to competence, and less significant in relation to autonomy and relatedness. However, it is important to note that the data for these studies are often obtained through events or competitions related to the Special Olympics and thus involve more competitive athletes with ID (Asunta et al., 2022; Hassan et al., 2012; McConkey and Menke, 2020), whereas this research focuses on a heterogeneous group of athletes with ID with varying levels of sports proficiency and competitive interest, and a sports programme whose main function and benefit is socialisation rather than competition (Varela et al., 2023). As well as limiting the scope of the research, this more competitive profile of the participants and research context accounts for the higher levels of satisfaction reported in relation to competence and the greater focus on competence by coaches.

One of the main contributions of this study is the finding that athletes with ID with a more basic level of athletic ability and a purely recreational interest in sport report satisfaction of all three BPN at a similarly high level based on their participation in the Más Que Tenis programme, with relatedness (rather than competence) scoring highest of the three. This finding is in line with the conclusions of other studies in adapted sports settings, in which sport has been shown to provide opportunities for socialisation (Shapiro and Martin, 2014), as well as personal and social growth, and a sense of belonging to a community and sharing a set of common goals (White et al., 2017).

Satisfaction of BPN, personal growth and satisfaction with life are closely related to self-concept, an area which has received little research attention in relation to people with mild to moderate ID (Reel et al., 2013). Positive and negative self-perception are directly related to feelings of general satisfaction, body satisfaction and self-esteem (Perrotta, 2011; Reel et al., 2013). While people with ID generally report lower levels of self-esteem than the rest of the population, participation in sports experiences has been shown to have a positive effect on both self-concept and sports competence (Pan and Davis, 2018). The participants in this study declared that they were good at sport and satisfied with their body image. However, they were also critical in their assessment of their attractiveness and their efforts in relation to physical self-care. In keeping with previous studies, positive self-concept was found to correlate with life satisfaction, with participants reporting high levels of satisfaction with their lives and personal circumstances. The findings in relation to the association between life satisfaction and BPN diverge from those reported elsewhere (Prado-Botana et al., 2023), however, with correlations observed between physical self-concept and autonomy and competence, but less noticeable with relatedness.

In relation to the coping skills assessed through the Vineland-3 Adaptive Behaviour Scale, the study’s findings indicate a deep connection between executive functions (EFs) and skills such as problem solving, impulse control and the ability to behave appropriately in different situations. While coping skills refer to how well a person manages stress, frustration and other emotions, EFs are defined as the mental abilities essential for carrying out effective, creative and socially acceptable behaviour (Erostarbe-Pérez et al., 2021), and include cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and planning and organisation. According to Erostarbe-Pérez et al. (2021), all EFs correlate significantly with general intellectual capacity, a claim confirmed by recent studies demonstrating the relationship between intelligence and working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control among adults with ID (Biesmans et al., 2019; Schuchardt et al., 2010; Memisevic and Sinanovic, 2014). Cognitive flexibility is the mental ability to adapt to changes and find new solutions to problems; athletes with high cognitive flexibility have the ability to change strategy when a coping technique is not working, e.g., by modifying a game plan in response to an unexpected situation (Diamond, 2013; Vestberg et al., 2012). Inhibitory control is the ability to control urges and inappropriate behaviour in situations of stress; athletes with good inhibitory control can resist the temptation to react impulsively and opt instead for a more appropriate response, such as staying calm and avoiding aggressive responses when faced with provocation from an opponent (Danielsson et al., 2010). Finally, planning and organisation allow people to anticipate challenges and develop strategies to deal with them effectively (Hartman et al., 2010); athletes with good planning and organisation skills have the ability to formulate plans to deal with different scenarios, such as a routine to prepare mentally before a competition (Lifshitz et al., 2007; Wehmeyer and Garner, 2003).

Among athletes with ID, the relationship between BPN, coping skills and EFs is complex and multifaceted. Satisfaction of BPN correlates intensely with motor behaviour in dynamic, unpredictable environments, such as Más Que Tenis tennis classes. Numerous studies also show that satisfaction of BPN leads to greater wellbeing and motivation among athletes with ID (Shangraw, 2017; Shogren et al., 2019), which are in turn linked with greater self-regulation and inhibitory control.

The more autonomy athletes perceive, the more in control they feel of their own actions, routines and decisions, which in turn improves their ability to inhibit inappropriate responses and stay focused on objectives (Shangraw, 2017; Shogren et al., 2019). Furthermore, autonomy improves athletes’ planning and decision-making skills by providing them with opportunities to develop their ability to assess options and plan activities.

Vestberg et al. (2012) analysis of how EFs predict success in soccer shows that players with greater cognitive flexibility are more effective when it comes to changing strategy and adapting to new circumstances. Greater sports competence not only increases cognitive flexibility, therefore, but also makes athletes more adaptable to changes and challenges, an ability that is essential in dynamic contexts such as that of a tennis class, where play is unpredictable. Satisfaction of the need for competence is also positively associated with pleasant emotions and biopsychosocial experiences perceived as functional for performance (Robazza et al., 2023).

In relation to the need for relatedness, positive social relationships have been shown to be a source of emotional support (Shogren et al., 2019), which can lead to improved emotional regulation and inhibitory control. The support of peers and coaches helps athletes to manage stress and negative emotions more effectively, and to respond in such situations in a more controlled, less reactive manner. The collaboration and effective communication components of positive social interactions in a sporting context also help to strengthen problem-solving ability by providing athletes with a more structured, strategic approach to dealing with challenges. Recent research shows that satisfaction of athletes’ need for relatedness and autonomy is related to the experience of pleasant emotions and functional biopsychosocial states based on adaptive emotional regulation (Robazza et al., 2023).

Despite the lack of research on the role of gender in relation to satisfaction of BPN among athletes with and without ID (Nieves, 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2019), the evidence indicates that in sporting contexts, as elsewhere, gender is a predictive factor of satisfaction of BPN, with female subjects scoring lower than male (Gómez-López et al., 2021; Moreno-Casado et al., 2022; Prado-Botana et al., 2023; Hu et al., 2023). In this study, the influence of gender was most pronounced in relation to satisfaction of the need for relatedness. The fact that the sample for the study was more than two thirds male may account for this low perception of satisfaction of the need for socialisation among the remaining one third (1–2 females per school).

Nevertheless, the fact that satisfaction scores for female participants were significantly lower than those of their male counterparts across all three BPN indicates that the Más Que Tenis recreational sports programme is failing to meet the needs of female athletes more generally, resulting in reduced motivation to participate, increased likelihood of abandonment, and the loss of opportunities for personal growth and development through PA. Those in charge of the programme should be mindful of this gender difference, and take targeted measures to respond more effectively to the needs of female athletes with ID.

The results of the study have important practical implications for professionals. First, professionals should pay special attention to the satisfaction of autonomy, as although participants feel that the exercises align with their interests, their perception of autonomy decreases when they are unable to choose how to perform them. This suggests the need to incorporate strategies that allow participants to make decisions about how to engage in activities, thereby promoting greater independence. Second, there is an emphasis on creating a supportive environment where participants can develop physical skills and feel part of a group. This underscores the educator’s role in fostering positive interactions and building trust among participants. Finally, the importance of a comprehensive approach that focuses not only on physical development but also on emotional and social growth through sports is highlighted.

The study revealed a high level of satisfaction of BPN among participants in the Más Que Tenis programme, with satisfaction of the need for relatedness ranking higher than autonomy and competence, in contrast to studies involving high performance athletes with ID, in which satisfaction is highest in relation to competence. This allows us to confirm our working hypothesis number 1 (H1).

Most participants were found to have a positive physical self-concept and a high level of satisfaction with their life in general. Satisfaction of BPN correlated positively with life satisfaction, and more moderately with physical self-concept, with significant values in relation to autonomy and competence, but not relatedness. According to this information, the study’s second hypothesis (H2) is confirmed.

The results showed a significant correlation between interpersonal and coping skills and satisfaction of the need for autonomy, and highlighted the importance of both sets of skills to ensure effective adaptive functioning. The interconnections identified between executive functions (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and planning) and coping skills show how the Más Que Tenis programme can help athletes to manage both their stress and the demands of sport more effectively. The dynamic, unpredictable environment created by the programme resulted in an intense correlation between satisfaction of all three BPN and motor performance in situations of change and uncertainty. According to these data, the third working hypothesis (H3) is partially confirmed since the positive relationship between BPN satisfaction and motor behaviour occurs mainly when there is coherence between the characteristics of the sports context (Más Que Tenis programme) and the context of everyday life. Most of the skills developed in the programme occur in contexts of open sports practise and uncertainty, so there is a strong correlation between the satisfaction of the BPN and daily motor behaviour in dynamic and unpredictable situations. This correlation is much lower or non-existent when the daily life situations are closed and without uncertainty.

Regarding the role of gender as a predictor of satisfaction of BPN, the study found that male participants perceived higher levels of satisfaction across all three BPN, indicating that the programme is less effective in meeting the needs of female athletes with ID. Working hypothesis 4 (H4) is thus confirmed.

As an additional conclusion, the findings of the study confirm the universality of the BPN model by showing similar applicability across neurotypical and neurodivergent populations.

Overall, the study shows that the Más Que Tenis recreational sports programme not only improves the tennis skills of athletes with ID, but also contributes to their personal and neuropsychological wellbeing by satisfying BPN, promoting a positive social environment, and developing their coping skills and everyday functioning.