Motivation is the intrinsic psychological tendency or internal drive that inspires and sustains an individual’s actions and directs them toward a certain goal, and it is the intrinsic motivation that determines behavior (Bandhu et al., 2024; Cook and Artino, 2016). Intrinsic motivation, in particular, plays a significant role in determining human behavior. Exercise motivation (EM) can be defined as the intrinsic or extrinsic motivation that prompts individuals to engage in sports activities (Barkoukis et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2024). This motivation can be derived from the individual’s intrinsic needs, desires, or values, or it can be influenced by external factors such as rewards, social pressures, or expectations (Deci and Ryan, 2013; Deci et al., 2001). Motivation derived from the pursuit of achievement, health, socialization, and other factors can significantly impact the motivation, persistence, and quality of performance of individuals engaged in sporting activities.

Self-efficacy can be defined as an individual’s subjective judgment about their capacity to perform a specific action to attain a desired outcome (Schunk, 1995; Bandura, 1991). It encapsulates the individual’s belief in their capability to execute a given action in order to achieve a particular purpose. The self-efficacy theory posits that self-efficacy can influence behavior, and that behavior can also influence self-efficacy (Jia and Wang, 2024; McLaren et al., 2024; McLaren et al., 2023). Furthermore, individuals with high self-efficacy demonstrate elevated levels of self-confidence and greater adherence to behavioral expectations in the context of diverse challenges and difficulties (Rafiei et al., 2024). The efficacy beliefs of college students are shaped by a combination of past experiences, personal attributes, and social support, which in turn influence their engagement in sporting activities. In examining the impact of sports motivation on self-efficacy, it is essential to consider the potential mediating influence of an individual’s intricate intrinsic motivational factors.

A study conducted by Kavussanu and Roberts (1996) on college students who were beginning to play tennis revealed that, among males, mastery of the motivational climate was a significant predictor of self-efficacy. In contrast, among females, the strongest predictor was motivation for performance. In a survey conducted by Pauline (2013) of 871 undergraduate students, it was found that gender differences in self-efficacy were equally influential with regard to college students’ physical activity behaviors and motivation to exercise. Males were observed to be more confident and self-protective in undertaking challenging physical activity, whereas females needed help from others in developing an exercise regimen in order to be able to further exercise (Pauline, 2013). In light of the aforementioned theories and related literature, this study puts forth hypothesis:

Leisure satisfaction through exercise activities can be defined as a positive emotional state resulting from the engagement in or selection of leisure activities (Beard and Ragheb, 1980; Teno et al., 2024). It represents the extent to which individuals experience satisfaction with their leisure experience or situation. It is evident that physical and recreational sports play an instrumental role in shaping the self-perception and psychological well-being of college students. These activities not only bolster physical vitality but also facilitate social interactions and mental growth. A study conducted by Lee, Gun-Chur et al. revealed a positive correlation between college students’ motivation to engage in sports and their overall satisfaction with their college experience. This was determined through a comprehensive survey and analysis of 419 college students who participated in recreational sports (Lee, 2019). The study conducted by Wu et al. (2021) on a sample of secondary school students in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China, demonstrated a significant positive correlation between leisure motivation and leisure satisfaction. In light of the aforementioned evidence, this paper proposes the research hypothesis:

Mental toughness is a dynamic process in which life events, such as stress and adversity, act simultaneously with protective factors (Richardson et al., 1990; Li et al., 2024). In the context of competitive sports, mental toughness is regarded as a pivotal factor in an athlete’s capacity to navigate the inherent pressures of competition and rebound from setbacks. Athletes who demonstrate elevated levels of mental toughness tend to exhibit superior performance under pressure and demonstrate accelerated recovery from suboptimal outcomes. Prior empirical studies have demonstrated a robust positive correlation between mental toughness and self-efficacy (Ali et al., 2024). Athletes with higher self-efficacy are more likely to develop resilience, which enables them to cope more effectively with stress and challenges. Furthermore, participation in enjoyable leisure activities (higher leisure satisfaction) has been demonstrated to enhance an individual’s capacity to effectively cope with stressors encountered during sporting activities (Freire and Teixeira, 2018; Pressman et al., 2009). This may be attributed to the fact that individuals who report high levels of leisure satisfaction tend to exhibit superior mental toughness (Terzi et al., 2024). In light of the above, this paper puts forth the research hypothesis:

In recent years, researchers at home and abroad have engaged in impassioned debate regarding the motivations of college students to participate in sports. However, it is equally important to focus on the reasons for these motives and their impact on college students, both physically and psychologically. Accordingly, this study employs college students as the research object to investigate the impact of sports motivation on college students’ self-efficacy and to elucidate the mediating role of leisure satisfaction and human mental toughness. The mediation model, which synthesizes the research hypotheses, is presented in Figure 1.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of exercise motivation on the self-efficacy of college students. To this end, a questionnaire survey was conducted among college students in Shandong Province, which revealed the mediating roles of leisure satisfaction and mental toughness. The results show that exercise motivation has a direct effect on self-efficacy, while leisure satisfaction and mental toughness play a significant mediating role in the relationship between exercise motivation and self-efficacy.

Motivation represents an intrinsic catalyst for an individual to accomplish a task and is the primary driver of individual behavior (Deci et al., 1991; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Those who are highly motivated to engage in physical activity tend to exhibit a heightened sense of self-efficacy, which can be defined as the belief in one’s ability to complete a task successfully (Boonekamp et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2012; Jain et al., 2021). Individuals who engage in physical activity for its own sake are more likely to experience an enhanced sense of self-efficacy, which not only enables them to effectively complete their exercise regimen but also fosters a sense of self-efficacy and competence that extends beyond the immediate exercise session (Pekmezi et al., 2009). This is in accordance with Bandura’s (1997) self-efficacy theory, which posits that it is more straightforward to cultivate and sustain a high level of self-efficacy when engaging in activities that are enjoyable. It can be reasonably deduced that in order to successfully increase the number of individuals participating in exercise, it is necessary to place emphasis on enhancing their intrinsic motivation. This may be achieved by the implementation of diverse, engaging, and challenging exercise programs, which will stimulate individuals’ interest and enthusiasm. Concurrently, the development of individuals’ self-efficacy through the setting of small, achievable goals and the provision of positive feedback and support can also markedly enhance their motivation and participation (Plotnikoff et al., 2013). This study lends support to the positive correlation between exercise motivation and self-efficacy, thereby underscoring the pivotal role of intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy in fostering exercise behavior. These findings not only enhance the theoretical foundation of exercise psychology but also provide crucial guidance for practice, enabling the design of more effective exercise intervention strategies.

It is important to consider the role of leisure satisfaction in this study, and the results indicate that leisure satisfaction plays a significant mediating role in exercise motivation and self-efficacy. It has been previously highlighted that there is a positive correlation between exercise motivation and leisure satisfaction. However, no study has yet proposed that the pathway EM → LS → SE is viable. This study, therefore, represents a significant contribution to the field, confirming for the first time that exercise motivation can modulate self-efficacy through the mediating variable of leisure satisfaction. Consequently, while we focus on enhancing self-efficacy through exercise motivation, we can also consider the role of leisure satisfaction and mental toughness. It may be the case that a more optimal program can be identified. This is consistent with the findings of other researchers that self-efficacy moderates the relationship between task-oriented motivational climate and satisfaction. However, it differs from this paper in that collective efficacy mediates the relationship between baseline perceived motivational climate and satisfaction (Blecharz et al., 2014). Moreover, in modeling the mediation relationships, we acknowledge the potential for collinearity effects among the latent variables, particularly given the interdependence between exercise motivation, leisure satisfaction, and mental toughness. Although we were unable to compute specific metrics for multicollinearity in this study, we took care to design the study and select measures in a way that minimizes potential collinearity issues. Future research could benefit from a more detailed examination of this aspect to enhance the understanding of the relationships among these constructs.

In general, an individual’s motivation and beliefs regarding the completion of a specific task influence their actual performance and self-perception (Anderson et al., 2007). College students with higher motivation are more likely to feel competent in sports, which subsequently enhances their self-efficacy (Bandhu et al., 2024; Bandura, 1988). Exercise motivation encourages individuals to engage in physical activity and enhances their level of participation (Rahman et al., 2020). The acquisition of a sense of achievement and pleasure in sports has been demonstrated to increase self-efficacy. In particular, the attainment of goals in sports serves to reinforce this sense of achievement, which in turn enhances self-efficacy. These findings have significant implications for educational practice and mental health interventions, particularly in terms of enhancing students’ academic and life performance. Educators can enhance students’ self-efficacy by encouraging them to engage in physical activity. The implementation of diverse and challenging sports programs enables students to sustain their success and sense of control in sports, thereby enhancing their self-confidence and self-efficacy. Furthermore, college students who demonstrated higher levels of motivation exhibited enhanced leisure satisfaction and mental resilience following exercise (Yang and Qian, 2024; Choi et al., 2020). The observed increase in leisure satisfaction may be attributed to the sense of enjoyment and accomplishment associated with exercise (Wang, 2022). Similarly, the increase in mental toughness may be attributed to the process of encountering challenges and subsequently overcoming them during exercise. These findings are consistent with previous research, which has indicated that exercise has a beneficial effect on both physical and mental health, as well as on overall life satisfaction (Ryan and Deci, 2000). This finding emphasizes the importance of exercise in promoting overall well-being and psychological resilience, thereby reinforcing the necessity to integrate exercise into health promotion programs for college students. In addition, it was found that leisure satisfaction and psychological resilience have a significant positive effect on self-efficacy. It can be posited that elevated levels of leisure satisfaction may serve to augment positive affect and self-confidence, which in turn may lead to an increase in self-efficacy (Tian et al., 2022). Similarly, individuals who demonstrate higher levels of psychological resilience are more adept at coping with stress and challenges, which also contributes to their sense of self-efficacy (Wu et al., 2020; Qin et al., 2023). These findings lend support to the psychological capital theory put forth by Luthans et al. (2007), which posits that psychological resilience and self-efficacy are crucial elements of an individual’s positive psychological resources. This study lends further support to this theory, indicating that enhancing psychological resilience and leisure satisfaction represents an effective strategy for enhancing self-efficacy. It is of greater significance to note that our research has validated the mediating function of leisure satisfaction and mental toughness in the relationship between exercise motivation and self-efficacy. In particular, the motivation to exercise indirectly enhances self-efficacy by increasing individuals’ satisfaction with their leisure activities and psychological resilience. In line with the findings of Diotaiuti et al. (2023), which highlight the role of psychological mechanisms such as decentering in athletes, our study further explores how leisure satisfaction and mental toughness mediate the relationship between exercise motivation and self-efficacy in college students (Diotaiuti et al., 2023). This finding contributes to the theoretical frameworks of sports psychology and educational psychology by emphasizing the pivotal role of leisure satisfaction and mental toughness in the psychological development of individuals. The identification of these two variables as mediators allows us to elucidate the specific mechanisms through which exercise motivation affects self-efficacy. Furthermore, it provides clear targets for future interventions.

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of exercise motivation on self-efficacy and to explore possible mechanisms. Our results indicate that exercise motivation has a significant positive effect on self-efficacy. Life satisfaction and mental toughness appear to be important mediators between exercise motivation and self-efficacy. One possible explanation is that students may use exercise as a tool to alleviate their poor physical and mental health.