Social commerce applications (SCAs) are virtual online communities where consumers gather to share, explore, and make purchases based on their individual preferences. These applications represent a refinement and enhancement of social commerce websites, emphasizing specialization and user-friendliness (Zhou et al., 2013). Acting as a bridge for consumer interactions, SCAs strategically blend online discussions with e-commerce functionality, incorporating message dialogs and embedded links that allow users to communicate with others about products and to make purchases instantly. SCAs also offer a highly personalized experience. Upon registration, users can select tags related to their preferences; big data algorithms then push tailored information based on these tags and the user’s browsing history. This unique push information ensures that users consistently interact with content that aligns with their interests.

SCAs also foster user engagement through features like sharing preferences, attaching tags, and providing purchase links within the app. Users can search for keywords, comment on posts, and interact with others, contributing to the establishment of extensive information-sharing networks with leader and follower relationships (Huang and Benyoucef, 2013). Additionally, SCAs offer remarkable accessibility – users can log in directly without the need for browser access (Yang et al., 2021). Their adaptability to mobile devices, particularly smartphones, eliminates the need for manual adjustments, providing users with a comfortable space for social and commerce activities on-the-go.

In essence, SCAs combine the advantages of social networking sites and e-commerce. SCAs prioritize user-to-user interaction (Olbrich and Holsing, 2011). They typically do not offer direct purchase channels rather rely on third-party links to facilitate actual shopping (Gonçalves Curty and Zhang, 2013). The selection of third-party links on SCAs is restricted, typically to well-known e-commerce platforms, ensuring a certain level of security for consumer accounts and payments.

SCAs are a product of e-commerce socialization but distinguishes itself in several key aspects. SCA users can create or join social groups aligned with their preferences, which fosters frequent interactions among users (Tajvidi et al., 2020). Throughout the shopping process, users actively support fellow consumers, offer insights into purchasing decisions, and aid in the selection of products that meet specific needs. In contrast, users of e-commerce platforms operate independently (Huang and Benyoucef, 2013). The entire process, from browsing shopping sites and making product comparisons to adding items to shopping carts and completing purchases, unfolds autonomously on SCAs. This direct, one-on-one interaction between buyers and sellers characterizes e-commerce, emphasizing the efficiency of transactions without the involvement of third parties.

Impulse buying (IB) entails a sudden and powerful desire to make an unplanned purchase, often prompted by a stimulus (Cavazos-Arroyo and Máynez-Guaderrama, 2022). This stimulus may originate from products themselves (e.g., their functionality or usefulness) or external factors (e.g., the shopping atmosphere or visual appeal) (Akram et al., 2018). While scholars initially emphasized on offline IB in establishing this concept, the widespread popularity of social media and other internet tools has shifted focus toward understanding online IB (Han, 2023; Spiteri Cornish, 2020). Researchers have increasingly delved into the intrinsic factors of consumers as entry points to comprehend the mechanisms leading to IB in this context (Van Tran et al., 2023).

Stern (1962) classified IB into for types: pure, reminder, suggestive, and planned. This categorization continues to significantly influence research on IB (Rao and Ko, 2021). Pure IB occurs when consumers browse posts on SCAs aimlessly before deciding to purchase a certain product. Reminder IB takes place when consumers, while casually browsing SCAs, realize the need to replenish certain items soon (e.g., household consumable goods) and immediately purchase them. Suggestive IB occurs when consumers make purchases based on recommendations from other SCA users. Finally, planned IB occurs when a consumer seeks information on SCAs regarding a specific purpose for which they are shopping, ultimately deciding to make purchases based on promotions.

The rich array of text, images, and videos (or vlogs) on SCAs stimulates users both visually and psychologically, readily leading to impulsive purchases. Browsing on SCAs is often perceived as a continuous exploration activity, undertaken without specific goals, characterized by undirected and less-focused engagement. Users may turn to browsing on SCAs during periods of boredom, experiencing a form of “treasure hunting” that brings satisfaction as well as opportunities for IB. Previous studies have indicated that the mass active user base on SCAs facilitates frequent, convenient consumer interactions and information transfer, significantly impacting emotions and self-esteem, which makes users more prone to impulsive consumption (Thompson and Prendergast, 2015; Jin and Ryu, 2020). Psychologically, IB is spontaneous, pleasurable, and satisfying – it is thus emotion-driven and potentially irresistible (Setyani et al., 2019). Further, both positive and negative moods impact IB (Parsad et al., 2021; Pornpitakpan et al., 2017). Table 1 summaries the previous studies on factors influencing online IB.

Determining actual IB in academic research is challenging due to the diverse perceptions individuals have regarding when consumption is impulsive (Luo, 2005). To address this challenge, researchers typically use the concept of “urge to buy impulsively” as a rational proxy to measure actual IB (e.g., Chen et al., 2021; Hewei, 2022; Wang et al., 2021). This urge represents “a state of desire experienced upon encountering an object in the environment” (Beatty and Elizabeth Ferrell, 1998, p. 172). Additionally, given that most transactions on a SCA platform are conducted through third-party external links, these transactions may be influenced by numerous uncontrollable factors. Investigating IB as a psychological urge can enhance the accuracy and rigorousness of research (Parboteeah et al., 2009). So, this viewpoint was adopted in the present study to define the point at which purchases are genuinely impulsive.

Boredom, a state of low stimulation or unpleasant emotions that individuals experience independently (Mikulas and Vodanovich, 1993), is widely recognized as a prevalent social phenomenon. When individuals feel disinterested or disengaged, they often take action to alleviate this psychological state. Scholars suggest that boredom arises for two main reasons: either individuals have too much free time with no definable purpose for it, or they lack something appealing to occupy their attention at that moment (Kwon et al., 2020). People may turn to various distractions or engage in various behaviors to escape feelings of boredom.

SCAs combine social media and e-commerce functionalities to allow users to share their personal experiences and knowledge, continuously and often unintentionally recommending products to others. Boredom has been shown to increase consumers’ purchase intentions (Park et al., 2022), and SCAs are filled with enticing information that encourages consumption. With the widespread use of smartphones and social media, individuals are likely to rely on their phones when they feel bored. Consumers often browse content that interests them without noticing how much time has passed (Witowska et al., 2020). Their likelihood of engaging in IB increases with the amount of time they spend on SCAs.

Strong emotions can drive purchasing behavior, and decisions made during emotionally charged moments tend to be irrational (Lidholm et al., 2017). Emotion-driven consumption can be positive, as it can lift consumers’ moods, enhance their focus, and improve their life satisfaction. While previous studies have superficially explored the relationship between boredom and IB (Peng et al., 2022), there is little research specifically focusing on bored consumers browsing SCAs. This study aims to comprehensively investigate IB on SCAs among users who feel bored.

Previous scholars have explored whether boredom-related atmospheric cues can induce IB, however, further research is necessary due to the complexity of this relationship. This study applies the S-O-R paradigm, initially proposed by A. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) to explore the extent to which individual differences influence the connection between stimuli and responses in mental structures and processes. Within the S-O-R framework, stimuli (S) encompass a range of internal and external forces that provoke mental responses. In the context of management and commerce, common external factors include marketing factors (Liang et al., 2021), celebrity effects (Chen et al., 2021), and destination layouts (Loureiro et al., 2021). Common internal stimuli are cultural factors (Redine et al., 2022), personal traits (Setyani et al., 2019), and perceived intimacy (Li et al., 2022). These stimuli, whether acting singularly or collectively, directly impact the organism (O) – the carriers that induce fluctuations and alterations in personal emotions – ultimately influencing the final behavioral response (R).

The significant role of the S-O-R model in understanding consumer behavior and the retail is widely acknowledged among scholars. For example, Ma et al. (2020) employed the paradigm to elucidate the positive impact of both strong and weak social ties on consumers’ purchasing intentions. The S-O-R model also closely aligns with the psychological process of IB and has been extensively used in studies on both online and offline consumption. Drawing from the S-O-R framework, Ming et al. (2021) found that social presence positively affects trust and flow experience, leading to IB. Barros et al. (2019) shown that retail store ambience can positively affect consumers’ emotional responses within the S-O-R paradigm. This study leveraged the comprehensive applicability of this paradigm as a theoretical framework for investigating whether consumers engage in IB when experiencing boredom.

All constructs were measured on multiple-item scales that had been adapted by previous researchers and modified to fit the context of this study. All items were scored on a seven-point Likert scale from “1 = strongly disagree” to “7 = strongly agree.” The scales were originally developed in English. The respondents’ native language is Chinese, so the translation-back-translation approach was used to ensure the consistency of meanings expressed in Chinese and English (Xi et al., 2023).

The absence of randomly assigned respondents in online questionnaires may increase the risk of common method bias, potentially impacting the results. This study incorporated control variables to measure SCA user characteristics, including gender, age, and income. Additional variables such as online shopping experience and daily time spent browsing SCAs were also included. It is important to note that control variables have no significant impact on other measured variables.

In this study, we adopted both symmetric and asymmetric analyses to investigate consumers experiencing boredom potentially engaging in IB on SCAs. Drawing from four theoretical perspectives – the S-O-R paradigm, social commerce, boredom theory, and IB theory – our research model extends the online IB model proposed by Parboteeah et al. (2009). Technical cues and situational cues were identified as crucial drivers of perceived values, which influence IB.

The results of this study suggest that EU, VA, and SEC are three key determinants of utilitarian value and hedonic value, supporting H1a-H3a and H1b-H3b. Furthermore, these values themselves were found to significantly influence IB, supporting H6-H7. When bored users browse SCAs, the technical advantages of SCAs (e.g., simple and clear operating systems, image-sharing features, a secure environment) impact them as consumers, triggering cognitive reactions (utilitarian) and affective reactions (hedonic) that stimulate IB.

Additionally, the results reveal a connection between PT and SER with utilitarian value (supporting H4a-H5a), while only PT significantly influenced hedonic value (supporting H5b). This suggests that PT can encourage consumers’ value perceptions, thereby driving IB. PT captures consumers’ attention and allows them to focus on product-related information, potentially mitigating their boredom as they concentrate on the SCA. Surprisingly, SER positively affected utilitarian value and hedonic value perceptions, though the impact on utilitarian value was significantly stronger. This implies that during impulsive consumption, consumer behavior not only relies on emotional awareness but also involves logical decision-making and cognitive deliberation (Hu et al., 2019).

When in a state of boredom, it is possible that utilitarian attributes are likely to improve consumers’ mood to the point of stimulating IB. This finding diverges from a previous study on SER in online IB in social commerce, which suggested a positive impact on IB (Bao and Yang, 2022). It appears that when consumers are bored (i.e., in a low emotional state), SER may not effectively stimulate their perceptions of hedonic value leading to IB. Furthermore, the mediation test results indicated that the effect of SER is fully mediated by utilitarian value. This implies that SER may not directly enhance IB unless the information about products reaches a certain level of users’ utilitarian needs. In essence, SER must be converted into utilitarian value to induce IB.

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the influence of IB among bored consumers using the fsQCA method. Previous studies have been limited to the PLS-SEM method in exploring similar phenomena (Xia et al., 2024). Serving as a complement to the PLS-SEM approach, fsQCA revealed the occurrence of high IB levels through three sets of elements: technical cues, situational cues, and shopping values. Six configurations aligned with symmetric analytic findings, explaining the same results through different pathways, each with unique core conditions. For example, consumers only engage in IB if they perceive values in shopping, through the attraction to other attributes can still stimulate IB without generating perceptions of shopping values according to fsQCA.

This study significantly contributes to the existing study on IB in social commerce, particularly within the context of social commerce. The findings may offer valuable insights regarding consumer behavior during states of emotional distress over an online IB model. Previous research predominantly focused on IB driven by positive emotions (Yi and Jai, 2020), neglecting exploration of how consumers, when bored, develop the desire to consume. By adopting a conceptual model within the S-O-R framework, we bridge this gap and offers a quantitative perspective on the causes of impulsive consumption in moments of boredom.

Building on qualitative research by Sundström et al. (2019), who explored impulsive consumption in states of boredom based on in-depth qualitative interviews in the fashion industry, this study offers a quantitative investigation grounded in the S-O-R framework. It highlights the external technical factors of SCAs, emphasizing the importance of an environment conducive to impulse shopping. A positive shopping environment enables consumers to focus on the content of the SCA, creating a psychological sense of time passing quickly, thereby altering the bored consumer’s mindset and potentially leading to IB.

This study also classified the users’ perceived value in online shopping into utilitarian and hedonic categories. The results suggest that perceived values play a pivotal role in influencing IB. The study advances the understanding of how SCA users’ perceived value shapes their tendencies toward IB. When browsing in a state of boredom, utilitarian-oriented consumers prioritize products that satisfy certain needs, leading to IB. Conversely, hedonistic consumers seek pleasure culminating in IB. The direct impact of perceived values on IB underscores indicates that consumers aim to alleviate boredom at an everyday level rather than under extraordinary circumstances. These findings, centered on utilitarian and hedonic value, enrich the theoretical framework of consumer behavior and IB in the context of social commerce.

Finally, this study contributes to the understanding on consumer behavior during psychological states of boredom. While previous research has shown that visual stimulation and smooth user experiences on SCAs can stimulate IB (Zheng et al., 2019), few studies have integrated both psychological and technical factors into their research. Grounded in the S-O-R framework and featuring a clear definition of impulsive consumption, this study’s findings align with the proposed hypotheses. IB emerges as a coping mechanism for users attempting to escape boredom and monotony, offering an opportunity to “break free” from an “unpleasant reality.” When consumers feel bored, they may turn to browsing on SCAs as a means of passing time. The stimuli encountered during this casual browsing can stimulate IB. A previous study similarly demonstrated that college students tend to buy fashion items when experiencing boredom (Studak and Workman, 2004).

The results may provide valuable insights for SCA operators to enhance their systems and managerial strategies. The identified relationships between EU in SCAs and the utilitarian and hedonic value perceived by users underscore the importance of user fluency in SCA interactions. To capitalize on this, administrators can focus on optimizing tools that empower consumers to easily tag content of interest. Additionally, refining the system’s push algorithm can further personalize content recommendations, narrowing down items that align with users’ preferences.

Given the positive impact of VA on utilitarian and hedonic value, managers should also prioritize platform esthetics. Page layout, typography, and visual elements (e.g., color matching) should be strategically employed to highlight content and facilitate user navigation. Creative transformations in marketing content, leveraging visual neurostimulation, can capture users’ attention and foster impulsive consumption through repeated exposure.

Attention to the SEC is also crucial. Operators are urged to promptly address SEC risks. Implementing timely feedback mechanisms and robust privacy protection methods can safeguard users’ personal information, significantly influencing both utilitarian and hedonic value. Strengthening both types of perceived values enhances the potential for IB.

Recognizing the differences between offline and online consumers, particularly in their motivations to escape boredom (Sundström et al., 2019), offers an opportunity for SCA operators as well. Incorporating gamification, adventure-like programs, and rewards into the browsing process can engage users, providing effective stimuli that can encourage IB. Understanding the specific reasons behind consumers’ states of boredom may enable operators to tailor strategies for encouraging excitement and other positive emotions, ultimately driving the urge to buy products impulsively.

Creating an informative and useful platform is essential, as the impact of SER on utilitarian value emphasizes the importance of substance over mere interest. Emphasizing unique product features in ads and facilitating user-friendly search features through tags or exclusive multimedia content can attract consumers’ interest. Implementing a robust filtering system empowers users to easily sift through information, encouraging IB by highlighting high-quality, relevant content.

While this research contributes to the understanding of IB, certain limitations warrant consideration. First, this study predominantly included respondents aged 20 to 30, potentially limiting the generalizability of its findings. Future investigations could explore IB similarities and variances across more diverse age groups. Second, the focus on understanding impulse purchases in the context of boredom may not have fully captured the multifaceted nature of social commerce, especially with emerging trends like live-streaming commerce. Subsequent research could delve into the dynamics of IB during live-streaming sessions. Third, this study relied on cross-sectional data collected through questionnaires, posing limitations on establishing causality and temporal dynamics. Future studies may adopt a longitudinal approach to overcome these constraints, enabling a more nuanced understanding of how IB unfolds over time and its applicability to diverse consumer groups. Addressing these considerations in future research can further enrich the understanding of IB within the evolving landscape of social commerce.