The concept of spirituality closely related to the concept of religion, yet there are a clear difference between the two terms (Hirono and Blake, 2017; Bauer and Johnson, 2019; Lace et al., 2020). Spirituality can be described as a psychological process experienced by individuals that involves self-transcendence, increased awareness, and the creation of a relationship with a sense of divinity or sublimity which then becomes the underlying aspect of the individual’s beliefs, identity and actions (King et al., 2020). Furthermore, Shabani et al. (2023) argue that spirituality includes several components, namely an individual’s understanding of the purpose of life, awareness of life values, transcendence capacity, as well as the individual’s ability to connect with oneself, other people, nature, as well as higher power.

Ekşi et al. (2020) also believed that spirituality can be reflected through the process of searching for the meaning of life, transcendence, modesty, achieving high values, as well as the process of discovering the secrets of life. Spirituality can also be defined as values, attitudes, or hopes that connect a person to well-being, so that it is considered very essential in creating happiness, increasing understanding of the meaning and purpose of life, and can lead to achieving life satisfaction (Jadidi et al., 2022; Kasapoğlu, 2022). As to Piotrowski et al. (2020), spirituality also covers some kind of transcendence that can be described as an individual’s self-awareness and connection to an ultimate source outside the self, especially God, which gives meaning to their life.

Furthermore, Piedmont (1999) defined spiritual transcendence as the ability that individuals have to view and understand life from a broader or higher perspective and more objectively, especially related to the individual’s understanding of the synchronicity of life, awareness of everything interconnected, as well as awareness to develop a sense of commitment toward other individuals. Spiritual transcendence scale consists of three main components: connectedness, which emphasizes a sense of connection and awareness of the importance of creating long-term harmony in life, universality, which emphasizes a strong belief in the unitary nature of life, and prayer fulfilment, which refers to a sense of joy and satisfaction that results from a personal encounter with transcendent reality.

In the process of self-transcendence, individuals tend to carry out various activities whose main aim is to help other people in need, as well as share wisdom with other individuals. Soriano and Calong (2021) argue that self-transcendence leads to the practice of increasing spiritual well-being in the midst of difficult conditions, especially those related to suffering, where individuals who experience these difficulties tend to share wisdom, accept death as a process of life, are interested in helping others, let go of loss, and find spiritual meaning in life. This can also be strengthened by studies which reveal that individuals with a high level of spirituality will be more patient in facing life’s challenges, especially when they lose someone (Nejati-Zarnaqi et al., 2022).

In addition, individuals will feel a strong awareness regarding God’s great spiritual plan which will be able to bring them to growth so they will tend to accept all events that occur as a process of growth (Khursheed and Shahnawaz, 2020). In this case, individuals with a high level of self-transcendence will better understand and accept difficult situations that are beyond their control, especially those related to severe traumas or natural disasters. Most people often use the spirituality principles in dealing with the various life challenges they experience, where a high level of spirituality tends to encourage individuals to re-evaluate the challenges they experience as a test given by God, which then actually gives them the strength to overcome these challenges (Chakraborty and Sadachar, 2023).

Spirituality is believed to be the main contributor that can influence an individual’s level of satisfaction with their life as a whole, especially in dealing with and managing stress, anxiety and depression so that this can lead to increased productivity (Shabani et al., 2023). In this case, spirituality can be said to be a crucial element for human life. Margetić et al. (2022) in their study revealed that solving problems through spiritual principles can be a significant foundation for negative emotions that arise from the surrounding environment. Literature reveals that aspects of spirituality, especially transcendence and humanity, provide a strong correlation to post-traumatic growth during the COVID-19 pandemic (Casali et al., 2022). The successful impact of the pandemic has triggered high levels of stress among individuals, where they will choose to draw closer to God, utilize spiritual ties, and ask for Divine guidance when facing vulnerabilities in life (Chakraborty and Sadachar, 2023).

Related to this, prayer is a strong spiritual source and can be used as a means of expressing individual psychological dynamics, as a spiritual tool for dealing with suffering, access to holiness, and a means of self-transcendence (Esperandio and Ladd, 2015). Research conducted by King et al. (2020) also demonstrated that high levels of religiosity reflect high levels of personal spirituality, which then leads to higher levels of hope. In this case, individuals tend to show a high sense of belonging, a perception that God is the most important, and a high commitment to their beliefs. Furthermore, the findings in the study conducted by Ekşi et al. (2020) demonstrated that spiritual transcendence can lead individuals to happiness, especially by asking a help from God.

Bali, is one of the regions in Indonesia, which is known to have a high level of spirituality or can be said to be the center of world spiritual energy. One of the philosophies that is strongly held by the people of Bali is Tri Hita Karana, namely the responsibility to maintain a balanced relationship between environmental, social and spiritual aspects which is also a distinctive characteristic of Balinese culture (Warren, 2012). Through this philosophy, the Balinese people are committed to maintaining spirituality by always serving God, protecting nature, while maintaining harmony with fellow humans (Rosalina et al., 2023). Moreover, the Balinese people also have strong local wisdom, especially in dealing with natural disasters. Balinese people believe that the occurrence of natural disasters is a sign of disharmony in human life and the occurrence of natural disasters is a form of God’s anger due to human actions that do not protect the world properly (Paramita, 2018).

Thus, the spiritual activities carried out by people in Bali are aimed at regenerating and maintaining balance in the universe. Nejati-Zarnaqi et al. (2022) in their research succeeded in proving that individuals perceive disasters as an inseparable part of this world, where natural disasters occur as a form of test given by God so that humans can grow into adults, perfect, trained, strong, able to expand their potential, and able to cultivate a deep relationship with God. In this context, natural disasters and other forms of suffering such as disease and destruction are one of the paths given by God to the world, especially in spiritual growth. Thus, it can be confirmed that spirituality is essential element of healing and growth in times of trauma and post-disasters (Dueck and Byron, 2011; Van Cappellen et al., 2021).

In the historical process, the Muslim people living in the Ottoman society, which formed the foundations of the Turkish society settled in Türkiye, adopted the values of a cultural atmosphere in which belief in the afterlife predominated, like many societies based on agricultural production and living a monotheistic religious life (Erkol, 2015). Until the 19th century, there was a society in which differences lived together as a result of geographical conditions within the Ottoman society (Türköne, 2003). The most important element that protects this structure was religion. In modern Türkiye, spirituality is equated with conservatism (Baykal, 2021).

The emergence and development of conservatism in Türkiye is closely related to the experience of modernization. The 70s appear to be a turning point regarding the increase in the visibility of religion in Turkish society (Asanatuci, 2023). Despite the experience of modernization in Türkiye, religion found a place for itself in the general social structure with new forms and managed to continue its existence at the social and individual level, and appropriated many elements of modernity by melting them in the crucible of tradition. In other words, the plurality and multidimensionality of Islamic identity claims do not form an anti-modern discourse about religious self, but rather a politics of identity acting within modernity and seeking respect (Keyman, 2007).

According to Islamic belief accepted by Turks, the tendency to take refuge in Allah and to show patience in the face of difficulties by getting support from Him can contribute to the individual feeling strong and coping with difficulties, and maturing by facing the fact that there is pain in life (Gümrükçüoğlu, 2023). In the divine book, the Qur’an, patience means moving forward with firm and determined steps, without panic or haste, in case of encountering troubles and difficulties, and waiting for God’s will and judgment. In this sense, prophet Muhammad advised the believer to stand firm in the face of calamities and disasters and to survive without collapsing.

Natural catastrophes such as floods, hurricanes, typhoons, and tsunamis, which have resulted in numerous casualties and infrastructure damage, are among the most feared by everyone on the planet. Earthquakes are among the most destructive natural disasters, and their occurrence is impossible to forecast. The earthquake tragedy is believed to be able to cause posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and even depression in all age groups (Mesidor and Sly, 2019). The literature reveals that anxiety is one of the components that usually appears after a natural disaster, especially an earthquake (Cénat et al., 2020; Gerstner et al., 2021). The results of research conducted by Fan et al. (2011) in China proved occurrence of anxiety, depression or PTSD even a six months after the earthquake incident.

Similarly, Xi et al. (2020) identified that people living in disaster-prone areas such as the Sichuan region were proven to have very high levels of PTSD, which also contributed to the high levels of depression and anxiety symptoms experienced. The same relationship was also found by the results of Pistoia et al. (2018) study which revealed that individuals who were in areas that were more frequently affected by natural disasters, especially earthquakes, tended to have high levels of anxiety and were more alert to threats. Hogg et al. (2016) argued that moving to another location that is safer and less frequently affected by disasters such as earthquakes may act as a post-earthquake protective effect that can offer better living conditions by reducing stress levels, trauma, depression or anxiety.

Goenjian et al. (2000) identified that the earthquake phenomenon had succeeded in triggering the creation of traumatic experiences in individuals, especially adults, where this severe trauma was caused by strong memories of conditions after the earthquake such as seeing many destroyed buildings, resulting in a reduction in community members either due to death or moving to other areas. Supporting this, Mutianingsih and Panjaitan (2020) stated that elderly individuals are more likely to suffer from post-disaster psychological problems such as anxiety, depression and PTSD which are believed to have a negative influence on the well-being and health of elderly victims. In this case, the increasingly severe level of depression was caused by the many pressures and difficulties experienced by adults after the earthquake, such as poverty, lack of food supply, and difficulty in finding work, so this had an impact on challenges in overcoming the trauma experienced. Furthermore, the increasingly severe level of anxiety is also driven by a number of factors, one of which is the great fear of a recurrence of the phenomena experienced during and after the earthquake (Mutianingsih and Panjaitan, 2020). Similarly, Zhang et al. (2012) in their research revealed that elderly individuals who had experienced a devastating earthquake were very likely to suffer from psychological problems such as a tendency to suffer from PTSD, depression and high levels of anxiety even more than 1 year after the natural disaster. On the one hand, the study conducted by Tang et al. (2020) stated that teenagers continue to face quite high anxiety problems even though an earthquake occurred three years ago, where the research results reveal that the serious challenges that must be faced after the earthquake are a critical factor in teenage anxiety. Türkiye is an earthquake zone where important fault lines pass (Aral and Tunç, 2021). In Türkiye, earthquake reality is a phenomenon making people very uneasy. Many people experience psychological problems due to earthquake anxiety or lose their jobs, physical fitness or mental health because they have actually experienced the earthquake disaster (Aydınbaş, 2023). Similarly, volcanic earthquakes are quite common in Bali and make the local people uneasy (Ardianto et al., 2021). However different from Turkish case, in Bali, earthquake anxiety is coming after anxiety stemming from floods caused by heavy rain (Subadra, 2020; Sutarja et al., 2022).

In this study, we assumed that earthquake anxiety can be seen between earthquake anxiety and some possible psychological reactions like sense of job security, job satisfaction and life satisfaction. In previous studies it was revealed that in both Balinese context and Turkish context earthquake anxiety negatively effects life satisfaction (Djelantik et al., 2021; Güler et al., 2024). Similarly, job security and satisfaction seems to get lower in times of disasters in both cultures (Basmantra et al., 2023; Sert et al., 2023; Güler et al., 2024). Moreover, as Ardhana (2020) suggest in terms of optimism in community Balinese culture is highly positive while as Öcal et al. (2020) suggest Turkish culture is rather pessimistic.

This research employed a quantitative approach to explore deeply into the relationships among spiritual transcendence, earthquake anxiety, job satisfaction, job security, life satisfaction, and the moderating role of optimism. Conducted in two distinct locations, namely Bali and Türkiye, the study was motivated by the frequent occurrence of natural earthquakes in the former and the robust spiritual foundation shared by both regions. The data collection process was carried our between October 2023 and January 2024. In this study, in terms of cultural difference we assumed a possible difference between the religious perspectives of these two cultures and in relation to that we assumed it will create some differences between psychological reactions regarding earthquake anxiety. We did not have and did not mention a broad cultural analysis comparing the two cultures in all domains of life. The primary objective of this study was to contribute to the existing literature by offering a comparative analysis of the levels of spiritualism and its correlation with earthquake anxiety, job satisfaction, job security, life satisfaction, and optimism across these two diverse locations.

The target population included all workers residing in Bali and Türkiye. The determination of the sample in this study was carried out through purposive sampling approach, by setting specific criteria: female and male workers residing in the regions of Bali and Türkiye, aged at least 18 years old, and employed in either the private or public sectors. The utilization of purposive sampling allowed the researchers to target individuals who met the defined criteria, ensuring that the sample represented workers who had direct experience with earthquake events while at work. The rationale for selecting workers as research respondents was to understand how earthquake-related anxiety can influence job security and satisfaction. Data collection was conducted through the distribution of 10-point Likert scale questionnaires using the Google Forms platform for its practical and efficient method to gather empirical data. The final sample size of 913 respondents, evenly distributed between Bali (N = 457) and Türkiye (N = 456). According to gender, the study found that female workers dominated the participation, totaling 501 respondents, while male workers comprised 412 participants. Regarding the sector of employment, 594 respondents worked in the private sector, whereas 319 were employed in the public sector. Respondents’ ages were categorized into five groups: 18–25 years (N = 255), 26–35 years (N = 253), 36–45 years (N = 228), 46–55 years (N = 112), and > 56 years (N = 65). In terms of educational level, respondents were classified into four categories: high school graduates (N = 134), Bachelor’s degree holders (N = 320), Master’s degree holders (N = 133), and doctoral degree holders (N = 326).

In this study in order to measure spiritual transcendence, Turkish adaptation of Piedmont (1999) Spiritual Transcendence Scale, created by İme et al. (2019), was employed. In its original form, this adaption consists of 5 dimensions: spiritual transcendence, spiritual orientation, worship satisfaction, internationality, and connectivity. For this study, we focused on the first dimension, spiritual transcendence, with 9 items. For earthquake anxiety, we used the one dimension-seven item adaptation of Fear of Earthquake Scale (FES) developed by Prizmić-Larsen et al. (2023) to Turkish by Usta et al. (2024). Moreover, for optimism we used The Turkish adaptation of Luthans et al. (2007). Psychological capital scale, conducted by Akçay (2014). The optimism dimension was composed of 6 items. Furthermore, to measure the sense of job security we used one dimension-6 item job security scale developed by Yilmaz and Aydin (2023). For measuring life satisfaction, Turkish adaptation of Diener et al. (1985) life satisfaction scale conducted by Dağlı and Baysal (2017) has been used. This scale was composed of one item and five questions. In this study, in order to measure job satisfaction, the short form of the Job Satisfaction Scale, which was developed by Brayfield and Rothe (1951) and whose 5-item short form was created by Judge et al. (1998), was adapted into Turkish by Keser and Bilir (2019).

The gathered data was subsequently analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with SmartPLS software. The data analysis involved two testing procedures: PLS Algorithm and PLS Bootstrapping. In the initial stage, the data was analyzed to ensure validity and reliability through outer model measurement. Convergent validity was assessed by examining outer loadings and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) value, where should ideally surpass a threshold of 0.50 to establish robust measurement (Hair et al., 2021). To ascertain discriminant validity, current study utilized the Fornell-Larcker Criterion and also employ the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) Ratio which should not exceed 0.90 to establish distinctiveness between constructs (Ringle et al., 2023). The use of Fornell-Larcker Criterion serves to investigate inter-construct correlations, primarily through the assessment of root squares of AVE. Subsequently, findings are cross-validated using HTMT Ratios which offer higher sensitivity in identifying correlations between constructs, thus enhancing the accuracy and validity of research data (Henseler et al., 2015; Henseler, 2017). Reliability of the data was evaluated using Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability, with scores exceeding 0.70 indicating reliability. The second stage involved employing PLS Bootstrapping procedures, which included Goodness of Fit analysis (R²) and hypothesis testing. This phase aimed to understand how spiritual transcendence in both regions could influence earthquake impacts and its relationships with constructs such as job security, job satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Additionally, it was crucial to investigate how levels of individual optimism, influenced by diverse cultural backgrounds, could impact earthquake-related anxieties.

The study gathered data through online questionnaires distributed to participants residing in Bali and Türkiye. The collected data was subsequently analyzed separately using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to derive results enabling thorough comparisons. The analysis comprised two stages: First, Outer model testing, which involved assessing convergent validity using outer loading parameters and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values, discriminant validity using Fornell-Larcker Criterion and Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio, and reliability measures including Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability. Second, Inner model evaluation, which included testing the goodness-of-fit (R²) and hypothesis testing (Hair et al., 2021).

Tables 1, 2 presents the outcomes of the validity tests for the datasets from Bali and Türkiye, evaluated through outer loading and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). The validity assessment revealed that not all indicators can be considered valid. According to Bali dataset (Table 1), four indicators (JSAT5, JSEC3, OPT4, and SPT9) were deleted and in the Türkiye dataset (Table 2), five indicators (JSAT3, JSAT5, OPT4, SPT4, and SPT9) were excluded due to their outer loading values below 0.50. Additionally, the AVE values before the deletion of these indicators were below 0.50: specifically, the spiritual transcendence variable scored 0.472 in the Bali dataset and 0.442 in the Türkiye dataset. Moreover, the optimism variable also scored below 0.50 which is 0.474 in the Türkiye dataset. Elimination of indicators in particular construct was carried out considering that the outer loading value obtained was relatively weak, namely below a score of 0.40 (Hair et al., 2021). After eliminating the invalid indicators, it confirms that both datasets were confirmed to meet the validity requirements: all outer loading values were above 0.50, and all AVE values for each variable were above 0.5. Specifically, the AVE values in the Bali dataset ranged from 0.524 to 0.741, and in the Türkiye dataset, they ranged from 0.562 to 0.844.

The measurement of discriminant validity in current study was conducted through two stages of analysis. The first stage involved assessing the square root of AVE using the Fornell-Larcker Criterion, and these results were then confirmed through the Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratio Values. The Fornell-Larcker Criterion test results on the Bali dataset (Table 3) and the Türkiye dataset (Table 4) affirm that the square root of AVE for each construct exceeds the square root values of AVE in other constructs. Subsequently, the HTMT test result on the Bali dataset (Table 5) and the Türkiye dataset (Table 6) confirm that each construct obtained an HTMT value of less than 0.90. These findings underline that no strong correlations were found between research constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981; Henseler et al., 2015; Henseler, 2017).

Tables 7, 8 provide the outcomes of the internal consistency assessment utilizing two parameters: Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability. The results confirm the reliability of the data utilized in this study, as all parameters exceeded the threshold of 0.70. In the Bali dataset (Table 5), Cronbach’s Alpha values for all variables ranged from 0.817 to 0.924, while in the Türkiye dataset, (Table 4) the reliability scores ranged from 0.755 to 0.907. Additionally, based on the composite reliability parameters, scores ranging from 0.880 to 0.939 were obtained in the Bali dataset and between 0.844 to 0.942 in the Türkiye dataset.

Tables 9, 10 illustrate the outcomes of the R² test. In the Bali dataset, the highest R² value was achieved for the job satisfaction construct, scoring 0.427. This indicates that 42.7% of the variance in job satisfaction can be explained by the spiritual transcendence and earthquake anxiety constructs. Subsequently, the job security construct attained an R² value of 0.406, suggesting that 40.6% of the variance in job security can be predicted by the earthquake anxiety and spiritual transcendence constructs. In the Türkiye dataset, the highest R² value was observed for the life satisfaction construct, reaching 0.411. This implies that 41.1% of the variance in life satisfaction can be accounted for by the spiritual transcendence and earthquake anxiety constructs. Additionally, the job security construct obtained an R² score of 0.322, indicating that 32.2% of the variance in job security can be predicted by the spiritual transcendence and earthquake anxiety constructs.

Tables 11–13 summarize the outcomes of direct, mediation, and moderation hypothesis testing. In the Bali dataset, seven hypotheses were accepted, while three were rejected. Conversely, in the Türkiye dataset, four hypotheses were accepted, and six were rejected. Firstly, the relationship between spiritual transcendence and earthquake anxiety was found to be positive and significant in the Bali dataset, with a coefficient value of 0.364, a t-statistic of 8.336 (> 1.65), and a p-value of 0.000 (< 0.05). However, this relationship was rejected in the Türkiye dataset, with a path coefficient of −0.039, a t-statistic of 0.417 (< 1.65), and a p-value of 0.339 (> 0.05). Secondly, the relationship between spiritual transcendence and job security was positive and significant in the Bali dataset, with a path coefficient of 0.225, a t-statistic of 4.328 (> 1.65), and a p-value of 0.000 (< 0.05).

Conversely, in the Türkiye dataset, this relationship was negative and not significant, with a coefficient value of −0.045, a t-statistic of 0.831 (< 1.65), and a p-value of 0.203 (> 0.05). Next hypothesis, the role of earthquake anxiety in mediating the relationship between spiritual transcendence and job security was found to be insignificant in both Bali and Türkiye datasets, as the t-statistic values of 1.586 (< 1.65) and 0.261 (< 1.65) with p-values of 0.057 (> 0.05) and 0.397 (> 0.05). Fourth, a positive and significant relationship between spiritual transcendence and life satisfaction was found in both datasets. In the Bali dataset, the path coefficient value was 0.203, compared to 0.185 in the Türkiye dataset. Additionally, both datasets obtained t-statistic values of 3.932 (> 1.65) and 3.768 (> 1.65) and both p-values of 0.000 (< 0.05).

The results of the fifth hypothesis test indicate that earthquake anxiety serves as a mediating variable in the relationship between spiritual transcendence and life satisfaction in the Bali dataset. This is supported by a t-statistic value of 2.741 (> 1.65) with a p-value of 0.003 (< 0.05). However, in the Türkiye dataset, earthquake anxiety fails as a mediating variable, as evidenced by a t-statistic value of 0.402 (< 1.65) with a p-value of 0.344 (> 0.05). For the sixth hypothesis, a positive and significant relationship between spiritual transcendence and job satisfaction was observed in both datasets.

In the Bali dataset, a higher path coefficient value of 0.350 was obtained compared to the Türkiye dataset, which had a coefficient value of 0.150. Furthermore, the t-statistic values were above 1.65, and the p-values were below 0.05 in both datasets. Hypothesis seven confirms that earthquake anxiety does not mediate the relationship between spiritual transcendence and job satisfaction in the Türkiye dataset. This is evident from the t-statistic value obtained at 0.107 (< 1.65) with a p-value of 0.457 (> 0.05). Conversely, in the Bali dataset, earthquake anxiety successfully acts as a mediating variable, as indicated by the t-statistic value of 3.079 (> 1.65) and p-values of 0.001 (< 0.05).

The eighth to tenth hypotheses represent the results of the moderation test of the optimism construct, with only the ninth hypothesis being accepted in both research datasets. These findings suggest that optimism moderates the relationship between earthquake anxiety and life satisfaction, supported by t-statistic values exceeding 1.65 and p-values below 0.05. In the Bali dataset, optimism strengthens this relationship with a positive path coefficient of 0.113. Conversely, in the Türkiye dataset, optimism weakens the relationship with a negative path coefficient of 0.088.

However, the eighth hypothesis was rejected in both datasets, indicating that optimism does not moderate the relationship between earthquake anxiety and job security. This is supported by t-statistics below 1.65 and p-values exceeding 0.05. Finally, the tenth hypothesis reveals that optimism weakens the relationship between earthquake anxiety and job satisfaction in the Türkiye dataset, with a path coefficient of −0.092, a t-statistic of 2.188 (> 1.65), and a p-value of 0.015 (< 0.05). In contrast, in the Bali dataset, optimism does not significantly moderate this relationship, as indicated by a t-statistic of 0.107 (< 1.65) and a p-value of 0.457 (> 0.05).