Nature-relatedness is a psychological construct that explains the subjective relationship between the natural environment and individuals, encompassing cognitive, emotional, and experiential aspects of individuals’ interaction with nature (Huang et al., 2022). It is characterized by feelings of gratitude, understanding, and commitment to the natural world (Sadowski et al., 2022), emphasizing the recognition of oneself as a part of nature and feeling responsible for other living things and the environment (Yurtsever and Angın, 2021). Research has shown that individuals with a higher connection to nature are more concerned about environmental issues and more likely to engage in eco-friendly behaviors, considering the impact of their actions on the environment (Wilkie, 2019; DeVille et al., 2021). Furthermore, nature-relatedness is associated with physical activity and participation in leisure activities (Molina-Cando et al., 2021), where leisure activities can increase nature-relatedness by encouraging interactions with natural environments (Richardson and McEwan, 2018). The scientific community has shown a growing interest in the relationship between leisure activities and nature-relatedness, especially in promoting physical and psychological well-being. For instance, studies have found that physical activity, especially when conducted with parents during primary school age, is positively associated with nature-relatedness (Puhakka et al., 2018), and experiencing nature is a significant motive for physical activity among adults, with green exercisers prioritizing motives related to convenience and experiencing nature over those related to physical health and sociability (Calogiuri and Elliott, 2017). Additionally, the natural environment, particularly when integrated into residential and workspaces, enhances job engagement and creativity through increased time spent outdoors and enjoyment of outdoor activities (Brossoit et al., 2024), highlighting the importance of leisure activities in natural settings in fostering a deeper connection with nature, which in turn can contribute to improved well-being and environmental attitudes.

The concept known as flow experience or optimal experience refers to a state of complete immersion in a physical or cognitive action, introduced in 1975 by Csikszentmihalyi based on observations in play activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). Characterized by intense concentration, enjoyment, and a sense of control (Huang and Liao, 2017), the flow experience has been extensively studied across various fields such as sports, work, education, and online video games, being recognized for its highly enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding nature (Weber et al., 2009). Several factors have been identified as antecedents of the flow experience, including difficulty-ability balance, clear goals, immediate feedback, a sense of control, and the presence of clear and unambiguous rules (Lin and Joe, 2012). Difficulty-ability balance, which refers to the match between the task’s difficulty and the individual’s skill level, suggests that flow is more likely when the challenge is high but manageable and the individual possesses the necessary skills to meet the challenge (Swann et al., 2012). Flow experience has been shown to have beneficial effects in various contexts, including work, where it is associated with increased job satisfaction, creativity, and productivity (Fullagar and Kelloway, 2009; Swann et al., 2012); sports, where it leads to increased performance and enjoyment (Swann et al., 2012); education, where it fosters engagement, motivation, and positive learning outcomes; and leisure activities, where it enhances the sense of enjoyment and satisfaction level (Huang and Liao, 2017). Furthermore, flow experiences may foster a profound connection with natural environments and motivate environmentally responsible behaviors. For instance, it was highlighted that mountain hikers experiencing flow, facilitated by their recreation specialization and perception of restorative environments, develop stronger connections to nature (Wöran and Arnberger, 2012). Similarly, it was found that environmental interpretation enhancing ecological flow experiences significantly influences visitors’ environmental attitudes and behaviors, suggesting that fostering flow experiences in natural settings can lead to increased environmental awareness and responsible actions (Tang et al., 2022).

Environmental behavior encompasses a wide range of individual actions and decisions that directly or indirectly impact the natural environment, extending beyond mere activities to include the decision-making processes leading to actions such as waste management, recycling, energy conservation, sustainable consumption, and participation in environmental initiatives (Barr, 2007). This concept is operationalized through a multidimensional approach that considers not only observable actions but also the motivations, attitudes, and societal norms influencing these behaviors (Zhao, 2023). Understanding the complex factors driving environmental behavior is crucial for promoting sustainable practices and tackling the environmental challenges we face. Environmental behavior has been explored in depth through studies on individuals’ attachment to nature and the assessment of this attachment using psychological measures. For instance, the effects of environmental behavior on human health and well-being have demonstrated the importance of connectedness and relatedness to nature and the environment (Keaulana et al., 2021). A strong correlation was found between nature connection and environmental behavior, and this relationship has been supported by both correlational and empirical evidence (Mackay and Schmitt, 2019). It was stated that nature-relatedness refers to the cognitive, emotional, and experiential connection of individuals with the natural environment and that this connection may have an impact on environmental behavior in natural settings (Nisbet et al., 2009; Lee and Jan, 2015). Finally, it was supported that nature-relatedness and environmental concern are important factors affecting individuals’ environmental behaviors (Dornhoff et al., 2019).

Environmental sensitivity encapsulates an individual’s ability to notice, process, and evaluate environmental information, fostering a deep awareness and concern for the environment that transcends mere knowledge acquisition. It involves forming a profound connection with the environment, leading to proactive preservation efforts. This concept highlights the cognitive and emotional bases motivating environmental behaviors, offering a nuanced perspective on individual engagement with environmental issues (Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group, 1998). It influences attitudes toward the environment, affects health outcomes, and shapes responses to environmental stimuli, establishing itself as a crucial element of environmental stewardship (Schultz et al., 2004). Research has linked environmental sensitivity to psychological constructs like anxiety sensitivity and educational outcomes, such as active and democratic citizenship, suggesting its development is influenced by genetic and environmental factors (Ersoy, 2014). Recognizing its significance has profound implications in education, public health, and environmental management, advocating for the integration of environmental themes into educational curricula to enhance awareness and conservation behaviors (Hyde and Karney, 2001), informing public health policies aimed at mitigating pollution’s impact on mental well-being (Ventriglio et al., 2020), and tailoring strategies to engage individuals effectively in sustainable practices by considering individual differences in environmental sensitivity (Asah-Kissiedu et al., 2020).

Communication with nature refers to the various ways in which individuals interact, connect, and engage with the natural world. This interaction encompasses a broad range of experiences and practices, from passive appreciation to active participation in environmental conservation efforts. This concept signifies a deep relationship between humans and nature, characterized by mutual influence and interconnectedness (Herzog and Strevey, 2008). Studies have highlighted its significance, showing that communication with nature not only enhances personal well-being but also fosters a greater inclination toward environmental actions (Asah-Kissiedu et al., 2020). Nature-relatedness in childhood, plays a crucial role, with research indicating that children’s communication to nature is stronger when their parents value outdoor nature experiences (Chawla, 2020). This underscores the importance of early experiences and parental support in nurturing a bond with the natural world. Furthermore, the well-being benefits of communication with nature, include improved emotional functioning, life satisfaction, psychological resilience, and stress management, highlighting the potential of nature-based interventions to bolster well-being and mental health outcomes (Capaldi et al., 2015).

Based on the existing literature, it can be hypothesized that flow experience has a mediating effect on the relationship between nature-relatedness and dependent variables in the study. For instance, it was found that environmental interpretation may increase the likelihood of experiencing ecological flow, which may indirectly affect individuals’ environmental attitudes and behavioral tendencies (Tang et al., 2022). It was shown that feeling connected to nature is beneficial for well-being and can lead to pro-environmental behavior (Lumber et al., 2017). In this process, the flow experience can play an important role, enabling individuals to experience an experience beyond time and space, where they lose themselves completely in their interaction with nature. This connection can encourage more environmentally responsible behavior and help individuals become more motivated to protect nature. Furthermore, it was observed that individuals who experienced high levels of flow experience during outdoor activities also had high levels of nature-relatedness (Capaldi et al., 2014). The experience of high levels of flow during outdoor activities strengthens individuals’ connection to nature, which in turn can increase their desire to value and protect it more. It was also suggested that interaction with nature can trigger the flow experience by directing physical or cognitive actions and providing interesting stimuli (Weinstein et al., 2009). In a state of flow, individuals are fully integrated in their activity, and this can increase their connectedness to nature, while encouraging more conscious and responsible behavior towards the environment. Accordingly, the current literature supports the hypothesis that flow experience plays a mediating role in the relationships between nature-relatedness and environmental behavior, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature. Therefore, the following hypotheses are as follows:

In this study, a theoretical model was created by using the theories of nature relatedness, flow experience, environmental behavior, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature based on literature review, logical thinking, and hypotheses. The theoretical model is shown in Figure 1.

The questionnaire used in the research consisted of two parts. The first part included a personal information form with questions about gender, age, and regular nature-based leisure activities. The second part consisted of validated scales to measure various psychological and environmental dimensions: the ‘Nature-relatedness Scale (NRS-6)’ with 6 statements for assessing nature relatedness, the ‘Recreational Flow Experience Scale (RFES)’ with 18 items for evaluating flow experience, and the ‘Attitude Towards Ecorecreation Scale (ATES)’ with 31 statements covering environmental behavior, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature. All scales employed a 5-point Likert-type format, ensuring consistency in response measurement across the different constructs assessed. To measure the nature relatedness, the NRS-6, which consisted of 21 statements in the original and 6 statements in the short form, was used (Nisbet and Zelenski, 2013). In the study conducted by Nisbet and Zelenski, the 6 statements and one-factor model explained 62.48% of the total variance. Some of the scale items are: “My ideal vacation spot would be in mote, wilderness area. I always think about how my actions affect the environment. My connection to nature and the environment is a part of my spirituality.” The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient of the scale was found to be 0.96. Test–retest reliability coefficients were found between 0.80 and 0.84 for 1-month periods. The Turkish validity and reliability of NRS-6 was conducted (Şahin et al., 2015). According to the exploratory factor analysis results, a single-factor structure of 6 statements was supported, and in the confirmatory factor analysis results of the unidimensional model, the fit index values were Normed Chi-square (χ²/df) = 1.97, Root Mean Square Error of Approximations (RMSEA) = 0.035, Goodness-of-fit Index (GFI) = 0.96, Adjusted Goodness-of-fit Index (AGFI) = 0.96, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.97, The Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.96 and Standardized Root Mean Square (SRMR) = 0.04. The factor loadings of the scale ranged between 0.42 and 0.74. Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient was calculated as 0.89. The test–retest reliability coefficient was found to be 0.89. The total score that can be obtained from NRS-6 was 30.

To measure the flow experience, the RFES was used (Ayhan et al., 2020). The RFES was originally developed in Turkish. During the development phase of the RFES, an expression pool consisting of 18 items was created. According to the expert opinions, 6 statements that were not suitable for the structure of the scale were removed from the scale. Some of the scale items are as follows: “I feel like I had a positive experience during the leisure activity I participated in. I lost track of time during the leisure activity I participated in. I feel extremely motivated during the leisure activity I participated in.” At the last point, according to the results of exploratory factor analysis, the one-factor model with 9 statements explained 53.98% of the total variance. A new study was conducted to confirm the validity of the scale. According to the confirmatory factor analysis results obtained in this study, the model was defined as valid and reliable. The total score that can be obtained from the RFES was 45.

The ATES was used to measure the variables of environmental behavior, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature (Durhan and Karaküçük, 2020). The ATES consists of a total of 6 dimensions (individual, social, environmental behavior, antipathy, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature) and 31 statements. Some of the scale items are as follows: “Eco-recreation increases my harmony with the environment. I share my experiences regarding eco-recreation with my circle. I believe that eco-recreation is a rehabilitation tool.” In this study, environmental behavior (5 statements), environmental sensitivity (4 statements), and communication with nature (3 statements) sub-dimensions were used. The findings of the confirmatory factor analysis conducted to determine the validity of the ATES revealed that the model provided a good fit (χ²/df = 2.416, RMSEA = 0.061; SRMR = 0.56; NFI = 0.95, CFI = 0.97). Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient was 0.78 in the environmental behavior sub-dimension, 0.77 in the environmental sensitivity sub-dimension, and 0.70 in the communication with nature sub-dimension. The total scores that can be obtained from environmental behavior, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature variables are 25, 20, and 15, respectively.

The data collection process consisted of five parts. In the first part, Turkish cycling communities on the Instagram platform were reached via message to reach individuals engaged in cycling activities. The presidents of these communities were informed about the study, and then they were asked to share the prepared questionnaire form with the WhatsApp groups of their communities. Data were collected between 1 and 7 November 2022. In the second part, in order to reach individuals engaged in fishing activities, data were collected on the coastline of the Karadeniz Ereğli district of Zonguldak province of Turkey between 1 and 15 December 2022. In the third section, to reach individuals engaged in canoeing/surfing/diving, data were collected in Mersinaki Bay in Foça district of Izmir province, Turkey between 1–15 June 2023. In the fourth and fifth sections, the Selçuklu Mountaineering Search and Rescue Club, which serves in the central districts of Konya province of Turkey, was reached to reach individuals engaged in trekking and climbing. The club president was informed about the study, and then they were asked to share the prepared questionnaire form with the WhatsApp groups of their communities. The data were collected between 1 and 7 November 2022.

Descriptive results for the participants were presented in Table 1. The sample of the study consisted of individuals who regularly engage in nature-based leisure activities in Turkey. The ideal sample size that can represent the research was determined using N > 50 + 8 m formula (Tabachnick et al., 2013). Since there were 27 statements in total expressing five variables in the study, according to this formula, the sample size was determined as 266 at a 95% confidence interval. However, the sample was not limited, and 379 individuals were reached in total.

In this study, several statistical analyses were performed to ensure the robustness and validity of the data collected. Firstly, Construct Validity was assessed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), which confirmed the unidimensional structure of the scales used in the study. Secondly, Reliability was examined through Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability scores for each scale to ensure internal consistency. Lastly, Multiple Regression Analysis was used to explore the relationships between the variables.

According to the results of CFA (Table 2), the factor loadings of all measurement tools used in the study were above the acceptable level. Cronbach’s alpha results were positive (α ≥ 0.70). Although the measurement tools produced satisfactory results in terms of CR (CR ≥ 0.70), the AVE value for only environmental sensitivity was slightly below the recommended threshold (AVE ≥ 0.50).

The results of the multiple regression analysis were presented in Table 3. According to the findings, nature-relatedness was positively correlated to flow experience, environmental behavior, environmental sensitivity, and communication with nature (p < 0.01). Nature-relatedness explained 50.5% of flow experience, 10.8% of environmental behavior, 13.7% of environmental sensitivity, and 20.0% of communication with nature.

Table 4 presented the total effect, direct effect, and indirect effect values between the latent variables in the structural equation model. According to the findings, nature-relatedness predicted environmental sensitivity, environmental behavior, and communication with nature and did so both directly and indirectly through the mediation of flow experience.

This study enriches our understanding of how nature-relatedness can significantly influence environmental behaviors, illustrating its importance as a theoretical construct in environmental psychology. By establishing a link between nature-relatedness and flow experiences, the research underlines the role of positive emotions in fostering deeper engagement with the natural world. These findings suggest that emotional and motivational enhancements experienced during interactions with nature are crucial for promoting sustained environmental behaviors. Furthermore, the evidence that flow experience acts as a mediator in this relationship provides a novel perspective on how psychological states can influence environmental ethics and actions. This highlights the potential for interventions aimed at increasing nature-relatedness to not only improve individual well-being but also to encourage broader environmental conservation efforts. The study’s insights can guide future research in exploring the mechanisms through which nature-based interventions can be optimized to foster both personal and ecological benefits.

This study underscores the benefits of nature-relatedness for enhancing flow experience and environmental behaviors, suggesting actionable strategies for organizations in both the public and private sectors. Managers can create positive impacts by constructing nature-based recreation areas, promoting nature-related activities, and ensuring easy access to green spaces. Additionally, integrating training on environmentally friendly practices and supporting sustainability initiatives can further foster environmental stewardship. In workplace settings, providing access to natural spaces can significantly reduce work-related stress and enhance employee well-being, thereby boosting productivity. Health organizations and community managers can also leverage these findings by facilitating public access to natural areas, thus contributing to public health through stress reduction and mental relaxation. For the tourism and recreation sectors, emphasizing and responsibly managing nature-based leisure activities can attract more visitors, enhance their experience, and simultaneously benefit environmental conservation. These approaches collectively underline the practical benefits of nurturing a deeper connection with nature to improve individual well-being and promote sustainable practices.

Future research should explore the diverse psychological effects of various less common nature-based leisure activities, such as camping, birdwatching, or stargazing, to better understand how different experiences influence psychological outcomes. Investigating the factors that enhance the likelihood of experiencing flow during these activities—including the influence of personality traits, motivation, experience levels, and perceptions—is crucial for a more nuanced understanding. Longitudinal studies are also needed to examine changes in nature-relatedness over time and its long-term impacts on psychological well-being. Additionally, more detailed investigations into how nature-based leisure impacts stress levels, mood, depression, anxiety, and physical health parameters like heart rate and blood pressure would provide a deeper insight into the health benefits of these activities. Such research will not only expand our knowledge but also inform the development of targeted interventions to maximize the benefits of engagement with nature.