Due to the importance of the tourism sector, international agencies have placed a high value on productivity analysis (Sliem et al., 2019; Fu et al., 2023). Urban World Heritage Sites (WHS) have immense cultural, historical, architectural and economic importance and effectively contribute to local economies (Bowitz and Ibenholt, 2009). Economic productivity has been widely studied in the simplest dimension and measured through the number of visitors, tourism income, job creation and contribution to the local economy (Loulanski, 2006a,b; Petronela, 2016; Parte and Alberca, 2023). Sociocultural productivity, in the context of urban WHS, goes beyond mere economic production (Caust and Vecco, 2017).

The cultural and social productivity of an urban WHS is related to its ability to foster a sense of identity, pride and social cohesion among local communities (Tan and Tan, 2020; Zhou et al., 2022; Folgado-Fernández et al., 2024). To measure this dimension, some studies have included the participation of local residents in cultural activities, educational programmes and community events related to the heritage site. In those studies, are measured elements like (1) community engagement and participation, the active involvement of local residents in cultural activities, educational programs, and community events related to the heritage site is essential for fostering socio-cultural productivity, (2) heritage interpretation and education through programs to enhance socio-cultural productivity by promoting understanding, appreciation, and stewardship of cultural heritage among local communities, (3) cultural diversity and inclusivity, it thrives in environments that embrace cultural diversity and inclusivity, where different perspectives, traditions, and identities are celebrated and respected, (4) social cohesion and collaboration among local stakeholders. They are fundamental for sustaining socio-cultural productivity within an urban WHS, (5) economic sustainability and livelihoods to support socio-cultural productivity by providing opportunities for local residents to derive economic benefits from heritage-related activities and businesses (Parga-Dans et al., 2020).

This socio-cultural participation can be extended from residents to the parties that interact in the WHS, such as the local tourism administration, companies on the supply side and tourists (Moli, 2011; Al-Hammadi, 2022). This interaction makes it possible to develop sociocultural tourism products that can be measured (McCamley, 2016; Cheng and Chen, 2022). Sociocultural products also contribute to developing an identity, culture and heritage based on the historical and cultural revitalisation of said ancient spaces (Nocca, 2017; Al-Hammadi, 2022).

The study of the emotions generated by the experiences of employees working in heritage places offers very relevant information for the analysis of the productivity of these spaces (Abd Aziz et al., 2020). Hotel employees are first-hand witnesses to the day-to-day experiences at heritage sites and can provide more qualified information than tourists themselves by knowing how the attractiveness of these places’ impacts on life within these historic spaces (Robina-Ramírez et al., 2023a,b). Although emotions play an important role in the tourism experience, rigorous empirical research on this topic is limited (Abd Aziz et al., 2020; Hosany et al., 2020; Robina-Ramírez et al., 2023a). As Timothy (2011) noted, we know relatively little about the psychological and emotional underpinnings that drive WHS visitation.

According to cognitive appraisal theory, emotions are mental states that result from the processing or evaluation of personally relevant information (Roseman et al., 1990; Robina-Ramírez et al., 2020). In particular, goal congruence as evaluation determines the emotional response (Hosany et al., 2020). Furthermore, several studies argue that a location’s WHS status is an important aspect of its attractiveness (Nguyen and Cheung, 2014), but increased visitation as a result of being listed as a WHS can have negative impacts on the site’s sustainability (Tarawneh and Wray, 2017; Zhang et al., 2020).

Cultural, historical and natural treasures are not mere physical landmarks, but repositories of stories and traditions that have shaped human civilisation by connecting visitors to their origins (Tung and Ritchie, 2011; Abd Aziz et al., 2020). When visitors explore venerable temples or ancient ruins, they may feel a sense of awe and reverence for the people who built these places (Salemink et al., 2020), beauty and joy (Nisbet and Zelenski, 2011).

Urban heritage contributes significantly to the cultural identity of a city (Zhang et al., 2020). For locals and tourists alike, these places often evoke feelings of belonging and pride (Abd Aziz et al., 2020; Butler et al., 2022; Folgado-Fernández et al., 2024). Locals may experience a deep sense of attachment, as their personal histories become intertwined with the city’s history generating empathy and connection related to the achievements of past generations (Lang et al., 2023). This intertwining can give rise to a sense of nostalgia from the collective memories embedded in the architecture, streets and landmarks (Prayag and Del Chiappa, 2023).

Fostering positive emotional connections can create a virtuous circle that benefits both visitors and workers at the sites themselves (Van Dijk and Kirk, 2008; Veetikazhi et al., 2023). When tourists connect emotionally with a site, they become advocates for its protection (Fang et al., 2021). This emotional investment can lead to increased awareness of the importance of sustainable tourism practices, ensuring that these sites remain intact for future generations (Mugobi and Mlozi, 2021).

Based on what has been indicated so far, we can formulate hypothesis 1 (H1):

Heritage sites are invaluable repositories of the evolution of human civilisation (Loulanski, 2006a,b; Arumugam et al., 2023). These sites are not mere relics frozen in time, but dynamic entities that reflect the constantly changing interaction between culture, history, architecture and society (Hede, 2008; Mugobi and Mlozi, 2021).

Heritage sites encapsulate moments that shaped societies and civilisations, allowing future generations to glimpse a distant era (Lowenthal, 2005; Zhu et al., 2022; Arumugam et al., 2023). By maintaining these physical links to the past, heritage sites help individuals to better understand origins, achievements and challenges (Rouhi, 2017; Cheng and Chen, 2022). These sites embody cultural practices, traditions and values that have been passed down through the generations (Vecco, 2010; Yang et al., 2022).

Local communities and societies often derive a sense of pride and belonging from these sites (Jimura, 2018; Fu et al., 2023), facilitating interactions between diverse communities and fostering a greater appreciation of different cultures (Su and Wall, 2011; Cheng and Chen, 2022). This cultural exchange enriches societies by broadening perspectives and promoting tolerance (Musitelli, 2002; Yang and Wall, 2022). The attractiveness of heritage sites has a significant impact on tourism, which in turn contributes to socio-economic development (Chong and Balasingam, 2019; Arumugam et al., 2023). The two hypotheses we can formulate are:

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in promoting responsible tourism and fostering a deeper understanding of these sites among local visitors (Leslie, 2012; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021). To achieve this goal, tourism authorities play a crucial role in providing educational training programmes that enhance the experience of local visitors at heritage sites (Ritchie, 2003; Abd Aziz et al., 2020; Robina Ramírez and Fernández Portillo, 2020).

Educational training programmes organised by tourism authorities at heritage sites provide opportunities for local visitors to connect with their own history and cultural identity (Timothy, 2011; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2022). Those programmes bridge this gap by providing knowledge beyond what is on display (Fyall et al., 2020).

In preserving these sites, tourism authorities have a responsibility to promote responsible tourism practices among local visitors protecting the heritage sites of mass tourism (Pedersen, 2002; Leal-Solís and Robina-Ramírez, 2022).

An enhanced visitor experience is at the heart of educational training programmes making heritage sites come alive for local visitors (Alazaizeh et al., 2019). The successful implementation of educational training programmes requires collaboration between tourism authorities, local communities, historians, archaeologists and educators. Based on the above, the following hypotheses can be formulated:

To date, numerous studies have addressed the role of technology in urban areas by identifying new business opportunities (Koukopoulos et al., 2017; Graziano and Privitera, 2020; Yan and Wall, 2022).

Heritage places do not only seek a consolidated, accessible and safe destination positioning (Santa-Cruz and López-Guzmán, 2017). In the continuous effort to improve customer engagement, the incorporation of technology is beginning to play an important role in improving visitor perception (Shafiee et al., 2022).

In parallel, research on interactive technology design for the cultural sector has also shifted its focus to implementing digital forms to provide means of dialogue and community engagement around heritage (Ciolfi et al., 2015; Yan and Wall, 2022). The quest for greater community engagement in the heritage sector has been encouraged by new possibilities offered by the advancement of digital technologies (Affleck and Kvan, 2008; Liang et al., 2021). In this scenario, cultural institutions seek to increase audience engagement with their collections and foster dialogue with their visitors, adopting more audience-centred practices (Simon, 2010; Mugobi and Mlozi, 2021).

Technology co-design methodologies have also contributed to empowering cultural heritage professionals to enhance visitor experiences (Ciolfi et al., 2016; Yan and Wall, 2022). In addition to the impact on heritage professionals, digital technologies are also having a significant impact in terms of supporting community participation and engagement in the cultural sector (Giaccardi, 2012). As a result, we have witnessed a proliferation of community-led cultural heritage initiatives that leverage platform solutions to manage cultural heritage (Giglitto, 2017). The hypotheses to be explored are:

In our meticulous data collection process, we cast a wide net, engaging with hotel managers and employees across various departments in Spain through an online questionnaire. Collaboration with tourist agencies in close proximity to heritage sites facilitated engagement with a broad spectrum of establishments. Information was disseminated to 114 hotels, yielding 62 affirmative responses. Further refinement ensued, with 51 hotels meticulously selected based on information garnered from tourist agencies located near the 14 heritage cities. These establishments served as the bedrock for data collection, from which 597 valid questionnaires were obtained, meticulously ensuring the integrity and robustness of our dataset (see Table 2).

Additionally, to ensure the reliability and validity of the data collected, the research team employed a rigorous verification process. This involved cross-referencing information provided by tourism authorities with data obtained directly from tourism companies operating within the historical destinations of the cities. Specifically, the focus was on hotels located within the boundaries of the heritage sites. By triangulating data from multiple sources, including official records and firsthand accounts from industry insiders, the research team aimed to minimize discrepancies and inaccuracies in the dataset.

This multifaceted approach to data collection and verification underscores the commitment to obtaining high-quality and accurate information regarding the hotel occupancy within WHS in Spain. By leveraging both official channels and direct industry engagement, the research team sought to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the hospitality infrastructure within these culturally significant areas. This meticulous methodology not only enhances the reliability of the findings but also contributes to a more nuanced analysis of the relationship between tourism development and heritage conservation in Spain’s World Heritage Sites.

To bridge the gap between the indicators identified through the literature review and the specific circumstances faced by employees in the context of this study, the research team undertook a series of targeted actions. Recognizing the importance of tailoring the indicators to the scope of the research, three focus groups were organized (Sánchez-Oro Sánchez et al., 2021), each comprising a total of 27 hotel employees. These focus groups served as invaluable platforms for gathering insights directly from those immersed in the daily operations and experiences within the hotel industry.

In the initial focus group session, the research team provided a comprehensive overview of the research topic, elucidating its significance and relevance within the context of the hospitality sector. By establishing a shared understanding of the research objectives and themes, participants were primed to engage meaningfully in subsequent discussions.

In the subsequent focus group, participants were invited to express their perspectives and concerns regarding the content and formulation of the research questions. This open dialogue facilitated the refinement of the indicators, ensuring their alignment with the realities and nuances of the hotel employees’ experiences. Feedback garnered from this session served as a valuable guide for enhancing the clarity and relevance of the research instruments.

The culmination of the focus group series involved the recording of interviews centered around the formulated hypotheses (Robina-Ramírez et al., 2021). This phase provided a deeper exploration of the themes and hypotheses under investigation, allowing for rich insights to be captured directly from the voices of hotel employees. Through probing questions and attentive listening, the research team gained nuanced understandings of the intricacies and dynamics at play within the hotel workplace environment.

By integrating the perspectives and inputs gathered from these focus group sessions and interviews, the research team was able to refine and contextualize the identified indicators, ensuring their applicability and resonance within the specific domain of hotel employee experiences. This iterative process of adaptation and refinement not only bolstered the validity and reliability of the research findings but also fostered a deeper appreciation for the complexities inherent in the relationship between employees and the topics under scrutiny.

The five variables analysed in the literature were taken into account for the elaboration of the model. The model presented in Figure 1 shows the indicators that were finally accepted, discarding those that were not significant.

Elaborating on variables such as cultural dynamization (DHC), emotions (E), education (DE), and technology (T) in relation to their impact on socio-cultural productivity (P) within hotels at World Heritage Sites (WHS) requires a multifaceted approach that integrates theoretical frameworks, empirical evidence, and advanced statistical analysis.

Firstly, a comprehensive understanding of each variable’s conceptualization and significance within the context of WHS is essential. DHC encompasses initiatives aimed at revitalizing cultural heritage, fostering community engagement, and promoting cultural sustainability, while E relates to the emotional responses of visitors, residents, and stakeholders, shaping their experiences and perceptions within WHS. DE involves educational programs and interpretive materials aimed at enhancing cultural literacy and heritage awareness, while T encompasses digital technologies and multimedia tools used for heritage interpretation and visitor engagement.

By synthesizing theoretical insights with empirical studies and case examples, the teamwork has assess the impact of these variables on socio-cultural productivity within WHS, considering factors such as visitor satisfaction, community cohesion, and heritage conservation efforts.

Utilizing advanced statistical analysis tools like Smart-PLS 4 allows for the calculation of R² values to quantify the variance explained by the model, providing valuable insights into the relative importance and effectiveness of each variable in predicting socio-cultural productivity outcomes within WHS.

This integrated approach facilitates a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between cultural dynamics, emotional experiences, educational initiatives, technological innovations, and socio-cultural outcomes within the unique context of World Heritage Sites.

Partial least square structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), coupled with SmartPLS 4, provides tools for gauging the model’s capacity to predict endogenous constructs (Hult et al., 2018). SEM techniques, including the PLS methodology, have gained popularity in analysing tourists’ motivations due to several reasons that make them more suitable than traditional covariance-based SEM techniques in this context (Hair et al., 2011). Tourists’ motivations are a complex and multi-faceted aspect of behavioural research in the field of tourism and hospitality.

The demographic analysis explains that of the 597 workers, 58% were women, 68% were under 35, 49% were married and 30% were single.

The evaluation of a PLS-SEM reflective measurement model is a rigorous process that requires to ensure the reliability and validity the internal and external consistency of the model. External loadings represent the strength of the relationship between each latent variable and its indicators, whose value should be >0.7 (Carmines and Zeller, 1979). A considerable number of items were discarded (see Table 3).

To study the validity and reliability, we analysed the parameters listed in Table 4. The values range from 0 to 1 (Hair et al., 2011). All conditions are met.

It is important to note that the Fornell-Larcker criterion only assesses discriminant validity indirectly, by comparing the average variance extracted and correlations (Sarstedt et al., 2011). This may affect the discriminant validity (see Table 5).

The heterotrait-monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) was proposed by Henseler (2021) as an alternative to the Fornell-Larcker criterion for assessing discriminant validity in PLS-SEM. The HTMT is based on comparing correlations between latent variables with indicators of each latent variable (Dash and Paul, 2021). If the HTMT<0.90, there is discriminant validity between the two latent variables (see Table 6).

PLS-SEM is a versatile statistical approach that accommodates the nuances of complex models and latent constructs. PLS-SEM thrives in the realm of relationships, enabling researchers to dissect causal connections and indirect effects. Hypothesis formulation is a foundational step in the research process, guiding investigations and providing a roadmap for analysis. In hypothesis testing, p-values and significant t-test are recommended (Cepeda-Carrion et al., 2019). Six out of eight hypothesis are significant (see Table 7).

According to Hair et al. (2022) and Henseler (2021) parametric criteria of T-Student (T statistics) and p values, allow to say that only null hypotheses 4 and 7 are fulfilled since they present a T-Student value <1.96 and a p value >0.05, the bootstrap confidence interval also allows testing whether a path coefficient is significantly different from zero. The confidence interval provides information on the stability of the estimated coefficient by offering a range of plausible population values for the parameter dependent on the variation in the data and the sample size. This implies that educational dynamization does not directly affect employee emotions if the educational initiatives implemented in the workplace primarily focus on skill development or knowledge enhancement rather than emotional regulation.

A fundamental concept within PLS-SEM is the coefficient of determination, (R²), which represents the proportion of variance explained in the endogenous constructs. The values for this model were found to be 0.67, 0.33 and 0.10, substantial, moderate, and weak, respectively (Chin, 1998; Table 8).

To measure the fit of the model, several indicators were set. (1) The standardised root mean square residual (SRMR) measures the discrepancy between the observed correlation matrices and the correlation matrices estimated by the model (Dash and Paul, 2021). A SRMR value of less than 0.08 indicates a good model fit. In this case, 0.073 is accepted. (2) The Squared Euclidean distance (d_ULS) and the Geodesic distance (d_G) evaluate the discrepancy between the observed and predicted covariance matrices. (3) The chi-square (χ²) compares the observed covariance matrix with the covariance matrix implied by the model. (4) The normed fit index (NFI) values closer to 1 indicating a better fit (see Table 9).

On the basis of the studies analysed and in accordance with the results obtained, we can highlight some theoretical implications:

First, for a high number of the employees who participated in this study, the sociocultural productivity of heritage sites is connected not only with physical heritage but also with cultural, historical, scientific or natural heritage because of its unique and significant value (Flores de León et al., 2020). This intangible heritage enables the development of cultural, historical (Su, 2020), educational and learning activities.

Second, more than half of the improvements in the sociocultural productivity of heritage sites are explained by the emotions of visitors to heritage places. Fostering positive emotional connections not only contributes to improved visitor expectations for these environments, but also creates a virtuous circle that benefits both visitors and site workers (Van Dijk and Kirk, 2008).

Third, technology currently plays an essential role in cultural-historical dynamization. Advances in technology also allow for the pursuit of greater community participation, which also facilitates the promotion of dialogue between visitors (Simon, 2010; Mugobi and Mlozi, 2021) and their dissemination and access impacting positively to the sociocultural productivity at the historical sites (Affleck and Kvan, 2008; Liang et al., 2021).

Fourth, emotions are generated from historical and cultural dynamisation. This evidence comes from the affirmation of H3 and rejection of H4 and H7. Historical-cultural dynamisation becomes the primary reason for the generation of emotions, as explained by the third hypothesis. Emotions are generated not only by the ability of heritage sites to connect with the past through their architectural wonders and narratives (Lowenthal, 2005; Zhu et al., 2022; Arumugam et al., 2023), but also because they help to build the identity of visitors who come to these places to better understand their history (Rouhi, 2017; Cheng and Chen, 2022) from the traditions and values passed on through the generations (Vecco, 2010).

First of all, it is necessary to highlight the importance of the proposed model as a tool for improving the productivity of heritage sites based on the experience of hotel employees. The fact that they work in these historic sites makes them qualified agents in defining the main factors that affect the productivity of these sites. This information may be of great interest to the tourism authorities and businesses residing in such historic environments.

Second, with the growth in technological advances, cultural institutions are beginning to orient the promotion and productivity of heritage places towards participatory design approaches that encourage dialogue with their visitors, adopting practices that are more focused on cultural demand (Simon, 2010; Mugobi and Mlozi, 2021). This also allows for the better management of both visitor experiences and the emotions generated from them (Ciolfi et al., 2016; Yan and Wall, 2022) through better control over cultural content to decide what, where and how to share it with visitors (Giaccardi, 2012). All this activity allows for the better collection, management or display of cultural heritage (Giglitto, 2017), which has an impact on improving its productivity.

Third, the improvement of educational dynamics has a positive effect on productivity, as stated in the fifth hypothesis (SD - > P, β = −0.312; T = 8.152; p-value = 0.000). This enhancement requires fostering a deeper understanding of these sites among local visitors (Leslie, 2012; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2021) through educational training programmes designed by tourism authorities (Ritchie, 2003; Abd Aziz et al., 2020). The aim of these cultural actions is to provide a better connection with the historical and cultural attractions of heritage sites (Timothy, 2011; Rasoolimanesh et al., 2022), places that help to deepen the visitor’s understanding of the reality of the past by fostering emotions such as a sense of belonging and pride.

This study has several limitations. First, the data were collected only from tourism enterprises and not from the authorities. If this investigation had covered both perspectives, it would have been able to provide a more complete picture. The current political situation in Spain has made it impossible to implement this second option, since many of the Directorates-General of Tourism still do not have a person appointed to gather data. This limitation suggests a future line of research that the research team will address in the coming months.

Future studies could include the proposal of suggestions for the incorporation of technology based on an increase in their productivity aimed at both ICOMOS bodies and the tourism authorities that manage heritage sites for the promotion of historical places.