Dance is a unique form of human movement that combines artistic creativity and expression with technical precision and stability of movement. As a performance art, dance is created for audiences to see dance pieces with original choreography and a high level of techniques. Therefore, dancers who perform dance spend much time and effort to showcase their best on stage. When a dancer achieves a flawless performance on stage, it is called a peak performance. Peak performance is a concept that includes not only the excellence of the performance itself but also the perceived subjective experiences of the performer (Privette, 1983; Swann et al., 2017), and in the context of dance performance, peak performance refers to a state in which a dancer performs an outstanding and dominant function, and achieves the highest achievement result by performing an optimal dance performance beyond the limits of his or her function (Flower, 2019). Outstanding dancers experience positive psychological states such as flow and optimal experience when they actually demonstrate peak performance (Hefferon and Ollis, 2006). This represents a state of fully functioning potential for the dancer, and it also allows them to discover their creative self and achieve outstanding performance (Jackson and Roberts, 1992). The struggle of dancers and coaches to reach and maintain this peak performance continues in the field and research. Research on proficiency in dance has primarily focused on the kinematic analysis of ballet, where the kinematic and kinetic variables of essential movements in ballet, such as the Grand rond de Jambe (Wilson et al., 2004), Pirouette (Lin et al., 2019), and Arabesque (Bronner, 2012) have been studied. These findings have been used to identify and improve dancers’ skill levels.

Recently, there has been a growing body of research on the excellence of professional dancers, exploring various aspects such as the relationship between the segmentation of dance movements and expertise in dance (Bläsing, 2015), as well as the impact of observers’ physical abilities on the aesthetic evaluation of dance (Cross et al., 2011). Compared to sports, where peak performance is one of the most studied areas, the study of dance proficiency seems to have received less attention. In sports, where peak performance has been studied extensively, the characteristics of a skilled athlete or player have been characterized by physique and fitness (Tsolakis and Vagenas, 2010), kinematic characteristics of motor skills (Camomilla et al., 2018; Oliveira et al., 2020), kinematic characteristics (Szafrański and Boguszewski, 2015), and cognitive traits such as visual navigation (Brams et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2022) and reaction time (Tønnessen et al., 2013). In addition, studies on the psychological states of skilled athletes and psychological skill training during peak performance moments have been actively studied in the context of peak performance (Ungerleider, 2005), and recently, neuroscience has also been investigating the neurological characteristics of skilled and unskilled athletes (Wei et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2014). On the other hand, in the field of dance, research has been mainly conducted in terms of analyzing the technical aspects of dance movements as described above, and it seems that it is necessary to apply the concept and understanding of peak performance to the field of dance in order to expand the research on dance proficiency. Professional dancers who achieve proficiency under a rigorous training regime can be considered both performing artists and elite athletes (Hays, 2002). Thus, to gain a deeper understanding of dance proficiency, this study aims to investigate the process of peak performance experience among professional dancers who are actively involved in national dance companies.

Approaches to peak performance (Privette, 1981) have been developed under a variety of terms, including peak experience (Maslow, 1962), flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), and aesthetic experience (Sandelands and Buckner, 1989). Maslow (1962) found that prominent figures such as Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Albert Schweitzer all had in common that they reported mystical experiences in their lives that had great rapture and meaning, and he referred to these moments of pure, positive happiness as peak experiences. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) found that people felt an exhilarating sense of transcendence and a distortion of time and space when they were at the peak of their abilities, which he called the optimal experience and referred to as the state of consciousness associated with flow. Sandelands and Buckner (1989) explained that active participation in an art-like task can lead to an aesthetic experience, considered peak performance. As can be seen from the various definitions, when performance, and thus the performer’s perceived experience, is at its peak, the performer seems to perceive his or her competence as exceptionally good. Privette (1981), who also defined excellence in performance with the word peak performance, stated that peak performance is behavior that exceeds or exceeds what is generally expected from an individual’s potential in a given situation. In the field of sports, the psychological characteristics of peak performance have been studied (Privette, 1983; Williams and Krane, 2021), peak performance strategies have been prepared based on the results (Harmison, 2006), and various psychological skills training have been applied in the field (Ungerleider, 2005) to attract and maintain athletes’ performance at the optimal level. According to previous research, the ideal state of mind and body associated with peak performance is (1) high confidence and anticipation, (2) energized but relaxed, (3) in control, (4) entirely focused, (5) intense focus on the target task, (6) positive attitudes and thoughts about performance, and (7) firm determination and enthusiasm (Williams and Krane, 2021). In a sporting context, peak performance refers to the moment of excellence that occurs when an athlete is at their best physically and mentally (Privette and Brundrick, 1991). To achieve this, athletes spend long hours preparing their bodies, engaging in intense training, working tirelessly, and utilizing various psychological techniques to modulate and enhance the positive factors that influence performance to achieve peak performance in competition (Vealey, 2007). Peak performance is most likely to occur when there is a harmonious alignment of physical, technical, and psychological demands, indicating a unified state of mind and body. Peak performance is also known to be influenced by personal factors such as the practice and competition situations experienced by the performer, as well as contextual variables such as social relationships with family, peers, and coaches, and facilities and equipment (Carlson, 1988; Côté, 1999). From these findings, it is known that skilled individuals are differentiated from novices and unskilled individuals by genetics, the acquired environment, and the interaction of the two in a variety of factors that constitute proficiency, including physique, fitness, skill, cognition, and psychology (Starkes and Allard, 1993). Advances in neuroscience are also revealing the neurological characteristics of skilled athletes. Skilled divers have increased cortical thickness (Wei et al., 2011), and elite archers show greater activation of cortical areas related to visuospatial, spatiotemporal, and decision-making compared to unskilled archers just before shooting a bow (Kim et al., 2014). Similarly, in sports and dance, proficiency occurs when all areas of the brain are at their best, not just the motor skill performance.

If we apply these sports-related proficiency studies to dance, we find that, like sports, dance proficiency can be characterized by the dancers’ physique, fitness, technique, cognition, and psychology. Borrowing from these concepts of proficiency, a review of studies on dance proficiency reveals that the following dimensions have been studied: physique (Misigoj-Durakovic et al., 2005), physical strength (Wyon et al., 2002), technique (Twitchett et al., 2009; Imura et al., 2010; Krasnow et al., 2011), cognition (Bläsing et al., 2009; Fagundes et al., 2013; Kawalek and Gobet, 2024), and psychology (Adam et al., 2004; Walker and Nordin-Bates, 2010). In particular, if we look at the research on dance proficiency, we can find a tendency to understand peak performance in terms of technical aspects such as body conditioning and body alignment (Kirkendall and Calabrese, 1983; Franklin, 2003). However, unlike sports, dance is a performing art characterized by presenting a predetermined sequence with the highest skill level in a set location and time. Therefore, peak performance is required to effectively convey messages and evoke emotions from audiences spaced at intervals (Hamilton and Robson, 2006; Moyle, 2019). Additionally, psychological and attentional demands such as emotional expression, presentation, creativity, artistry, communication, and interaction with the audience (Panebianco-Warrens, 2014) may be differentiated from sports performance studies. Therefore, considering the specificity of the art, it is crucial to maintain an optimal psychological state as well as the technique of physical movement of the performer using the limbs (Nordin-Bates, 2012). This aligns with recent research emphasizing the importance of psychological aspects to peak performance in many areas (Taylor and Estanol, 2015). If you imagine a dancer performing on stage, they have already earned the role because they are already at the top of their game regarding physique, strength, technique, and cognition. This is evidence that they have already reached a certain level in most proficiency-related domains. Psychology can significantly impact dancers’ ability to perform at their best in the moment. Dancers’ tension and pressure on stage can be very high (Rodrigues-Krause et al., 2015). Therefore, the dancer must be psychologically prepared to deal with personal and environmental stresses for optimal performance in a dance performance situation.

There has been less research on proficiency and psychology in dance than in other fields. Studies that do consider psychological aspects are often limited to exploring specific dance genres (Twitchett et al., 2009; Flower, 2016; Flower, 2019), and studies that examine technical and holistically psychological aspects are sorely lacking (Anderson et al., 2014; Franklin, 2018). Furthermore, the time before and after a dancer performs on stage is also a significant factor influencing dance performance, but the literature is sparse. The psychological state of a dancer can be categorized into different stages based on the actual performance on stage. Dancers undergo rigorous training and consistent practice in preparation for performances. Before taking the stage, they go through processes such as makeup, costume selection, and warming up. On stage, dancers have to consider many factors that affect their performance: environmental factors such as the stage, audience, costumes, and weather, as well as personal factors such as physical fitness, technique, and psychology, in order to maintain an optimal state of mind to perform at their best (Sanders et al., 2021). The uniqueness of performing on stage is an essential factor contributing to the differences between performance in practice and training situations (Jaque et al., 2020), and psychological preparation is an integral part of this process, resulting in some performers performing worse or better on stage than in practice. This difference clearly distinguishes between practice and actual performance outcomes and can be interpreted as a significant psychological factor influencing Dancers’ peak performance on stage, in addition to the factors influenced by practice and training. Therefore, to systematically understand why and how peak performance is experienced, a systematic exploration of the psychological states experienced by dancers before, during, and after the main performance and the process of peak performance should be considered. In this study, we aimed to classify the psychological states experienced by professional dancers before, during, and after their performances according to the time series flow and to identify the characteristics of each time point.

This study consisted of an open-ended questionnaire and interviews. Open-ended questionnaires encourage participants to freely express their experiences, views, thoughts, and feelings and are an easy way to collect comprehensive data from many participants. At the same time, interviews allow for an in-depth understanding of peak performance experienced by professional dancers through profound conversations (Wittenberg et al., 2013). Peak performance is not a simple, one-dimensional state that can be easily attained (Harmison, 2006). Therefore, through comprehensive data collection using open-ended questionnaires and more specific and in-depth empirical exploration through interviews, we sought better to understand the nature of successful performance in dance and holistically examine the processes involved in peak performance to explain this complex relationship.

The study analyzed the peak performances of professional dancers at three different time points: during the performance, before the performance, and after the performance.

This study aimed to explore the overall process of peak performance as experienced by professional dancers on stage. Collectively, we analyzed data collected through in-depth interviews and an open-ended questionnaire to explore the characteristics of peak performance experiences over time, including the moment of peak performance and the time before and after that moment. As a result, we were able to explore the peak performance experience of professional dancers in three distinct changes over time: on-stage (the moment of peak performance), pre-stage (the preparation for peak performance), and post-stage (the impact of peak performance). Specific discussions for each point in time include. The current findings support previous research indicating that dancers’ success and development are influenced by factors such as motivation, optimal learning, productive thinking, high-level skills, and self-efficacy (Chua, 2014). The details of this elaboration are provided below.

First, a discussion of peak performance moments on stage is presented as follows. The factors that led to professional dancers’ perception of peak performance on stage were broadly categorized into internal and external factors. Dancers commented on the psychological, technical, and physical characteristics they experienced internally during their peak performance. Most professional dancers used words to describe their peak performance experience, implying that it was an extraordinary peak performance that pushed them beyond their limits, along with adverbs to emphasize that it was different than usual (really, more, extremely, and tremendously). These words are categorized as psychological (flow, focus, fulfillment, and catharsis), technical (perfection, success, automaticity, and harmony), and physical (lightness and energy) and represent the state of mind during peak performance. Dancers seem to perceive peak performance in a positive psychological, technical, and physical optimal state on stage. In other words, peak performance can be considered as achieved when there is simultaneous fulfillment of physical, technical, and psychological demands. A study that qualitatively explored ballet dancers’ experiences of peak performance reported that peak performance is characterized by a heightened sense of multiple positive emotions (elation, joy, and fun), an altered state of consciousness (flow), less self-awareness, and an individual’s ability to master technique (Flower, 2016). For a dancer to achieve the highest level of performance, mental preparation, accurate and well-learned technical skills, and a high level of physical health are essential (Taylor and Estanol, 2015). Moreover, the attainment of improved flow states plays a vital role in achieving successful performance optimization (Kirchner et al., 2008; Jaque et al., 2020). Also, the characteristics of the flow state closely align with those of peak performance (Jackson et al., 2001; Hefferon and Ollis, 2006). In the context of research on dancers’ flow, the significance of maintaining a balance between the performer’s challenge and skill is emphasized, along with the ability to sustain effortless long-term attention and focus while executing the task (Jaque et al., 2020; Thomson and Jaque, 2023). However, flow differs from peak performance in that it is an intrinsically rewarding experience that may or may not result in peak performance (Privette and Brundrick, 1991). The intrinsic factors of peak performance experienced through dance performance that emerged in the present study are also found in studies of peak performance in sports (Ferrell et al., 2006; Harmison, 2006; Williams and Krane, 2021). The peak performance of professional dancers was closely related to the internal factors experienced through dance practice and external environmental factors such as the audience, the work, and the music. Dance performances are executed on a stage in front of audiences, so it is inevitable that in a dance performance, the dancer will convey the message of the piece through peak performance, and the audience will understand and relate to the message as they watch (Atkinson et al., 2004; Nordin-Bates, 2012). This interaction between the dancer and the audience was perceived as an essential factor in the peak performance experience. Dancers reported feeling connected to the audience during peak performance, being sensitive to the audience’s focus or response, and experiencing positive audience reactions. Dancers also mentioned the nature of the work in which they experienced peak performance. Primarily, when they were given a significant role and when the role was challenging or a good fit for them, they said they prepared more thoroughly for the performance, leading them to peak performance. These findings are similar to the motivations that have been found in research related to motivation in sports and performance, where individuals are driven to reach areas of excellence when performing evaluated tasks or participating in competitions (Roberts et al., 2007). In these cases, it is assumed that responsibility for the outcomes of the task and a degree of challenge are inherent (Fry and Moore, 2019). We can see that professional dancers place a high value on being responsible for the outcomes of the task at hand (importance of the role in the work of art), congruence between the requirements of the task, and their personal dance style (homogeneity of the role with their dance), and balance between the level of the task and their abilities (perceived challenge) in their peak performance experiences. These characteristics can be seen as key contextual factors that influence the expression of peak performance.

Second, a discussion of preparation for peak performance on pre-stage is presented as follows. Preparation on pre-stage can be categorized into two distinct time periods: during practice and immediately before the performance. During a given practice period, dancers physically focus on technical, cognitive, and artistic strategies directly related to dance performance to achieve peak performance on stage. Movement proficiency comprises physiological, technical, cognitive, and emotional factors (Williams and Krane, 2021). Skilled dancers spend countless hours training their bodies and honing their skills through systematic and rigorous training and practice to achieve all these components. The more time dancers invest in practice, the greater the likelihood of contributing to improvements in cognitive abilities such as superior perceptual processing and the ability to perform dance tasks automatically (Kawalek and Gobet, 2024). Professional dancers all emphasize the importance of consistent and sufficient repetitive practice. According to them, the right amount and duration of practice is the foundation for a successful performance, and it is also the basis for dancers to be psychologically stable and have faith in themselves before going on stage (Anderson et al., 2014). In addition, during the practice process, they use cognitive methods such as image training, self-assessment, and concentration to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of practice, analyze and understand the characters in the work, and try to empathize with them to enhance artistic perfection. These various strategies were useful in promoting peak performance, and the most preferred method varied from dancer to dancer. During the pre-stage, it is noteworthy that just before going on-stage, they focused on the psychological and physical aspects rather than the technical, artistic, and cognitive aspects, and this strategy led to peak performance. Dance is one of the performing arts with liveness that cannot be recreated after the moment it is performed. Performing arts with liveness are characterized by one-time performance, in which the acted and choreographed body movements are perceived as a physical reality (object) by the eyes, but after that time, all body movements return to the illusion (Reason and Lindelof, 2016). Considering the performative artistic characteristics of dance, it is efficient to focus on bringing out and maintaining the best psychological and physical conditions of the performers (i.e., dancers), in order to successfully perform the dance performance that has been painstakingly created during the practice period on the day of the performance. Moreover, it is important to implement psychological techniques to manage anxiety stemming from unavoidable or heightened demands experienced during the rehearsal process on the day of the performance (Thomson and Jaque, 2023). In particular, professional dancers have been shown to utilize various psychological techniques elite athletes use in competition, including mind control, magnetization, imagery training, and routines to create an optimal mental state (Ungerleider, 2005; Harmison, 2006). These individualized psychological techniques appear to be important factors in maintaining an optimal mental state and achieving peak performance.

Third, a discussion of the impact of peak performance after the stage is over follows. The post-peak performance experience can be categorized into two distinct time points: immediately after the performance and afterward. Professional dancers reported psychological changes and physiological underpinnings related primarily to dance performance immediately after leaving the stage at the end of a performance. The experience of peak performance on stage led to positive psychological experiences such as feelings of fulfillment, euphoria, and jubilation. Peak performance is a rewarding experience for dancers after repeated practice and hard training. The fulfillment and jubilation experienced through peak performance (i.e., goal attainment) have been shown to lead to secondary psychological changes that trigger and sustain an ‘internal motivation’ to experience peak performance again in subsequent dance performances (Lyubomirsky, 2001; Hacker and Mann, 2022). These findings validate earlier flow studies, affirming that peak performance experiences result in enhanced motivation and positive emotional states, which not only have a direct impact on dancers’ future performances but also expand individuals’ cognitive-behavioral range, thereby improving human achievement and leading to a more satisfying and fulfilling life (Costa et al., 2023). Furthermore, since dance is based on physical movement, sensations such as freshness, exhilaration, and a feeling of warmth throughout the body after sweating can be viewed as vitality stemming from physiological bases. In dance performance, physical vitality and a sense of satisfaction and liveliness after focusing on performance were evident. The immediate post-peak performance state exhibited by dancers is believed to stem from the intrinsic nature of dance, which distinguishes it from other physical activities as an expressive activity that combines the body and mind (Hanna, 1995). The peak performance experience is brief and transient but has lasting and profound consequences afterward. Professional dancers reported psychological, technical, and cognitive changes after their peak performance experience. Specifically, psychologically, professional dancers reported a solid desire to re-experience their peak performance, increased confidence, passion, conviction, and trust in their dance abilities, and decreased fear on stage. Psychological factors change technical dimensions or aspects, such as practicing and thoroughly preparing for more flawless performance and improving dance skills. As a result, the peak performance experience served as a powerful intrinsic motivator for the individual dancer’s positive evaluation, endurance of dance activities, and efforts to improve performance (Privette, 1983; Rheinberg, 2020). It was also noted that the peak performance experience led to a cognitive expansion of thinking about dance, an increase in the diversity of expressive techniques, and a qualitative change in the efficiency or direction of practice.

This virtuous cycle shows that the dancers’ peak performance experience is a major turning point. In other words, the peak performance experience can be interpreted as a trigger for self-growth, enabling the dancer to discover and realize new things and acting as a catalyst for psychological, technical, and cognitive changes related to dance. Although this study cannot establish a causal relationship between the findings, it is still valuable as it offers insight into the psychological factors that professional dancers experience during their peak performances. In the future, studies should be conducted to investigate these causal differences thoroughly.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

The studies involving humans were approved by the Institutional Review Board of Seoul National University. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

SN: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Methodology, Visualization, Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Resources. HP: Data curation, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Investigation, Resources, Writing – original draft. MK: Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Resources, Writing – original draft.