Attachment theory posits that individuals are born with behavioral systems primarily designed to promote survival (Bretherton, 1992; Gillath et al., 2005; Jones, 2015; Shaver et al., 2016; Stern and Cassidy, 2018). Two key systems within this framework are the attachment behavioral system and the caregiving behavioral system (CBS). The attachment behavioral system is activated during stressful situations to regulate distress by seeking responsive and sensitive care from attachment figures. This system drives individuals to seek proximity to attachment figures, and achieving this proximity elicits feelings of relief and security (Bretherton, 1992; Gillath et al., 2005; Shaver et al., 2016). When coupled with attentive caregiving, this leads to the development of a positive internal working model (IWM) of the self as a valued and competent individual (Gillath et al., 2005; Stern and Cassidy, 2018). Furthermore, perceiving an attachment figure as attentive helps mold an IWM of others as worthy of care (Hawkins et al., 2017). This mental representation influences individuals to be empathetic toward their source of comfort during times of stress, fostering and cultivating empathetic responses within attachment relationships (Bretherton, 1992; Gillath et al., 2005; Panfile and Laible, 2012; Costa Martins et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2022).

Complementing the attachment behavioral system, the caregiving behavioral system (CBS) aims to provide responsive and sensitive care to distressed individuals (Bretherton, 1992; Jones, 2015; Shaver et al., 2016). The CBS organizes caring behaviors intended to alleviate stress by serving as a safe haven and secure base for those exhibiting distress cues (George and Solomon, 2008; Shaver et al., 2016). This system is inherently altruistic, designed to support and nurture others in need (Gillath et al., 2005). When the caregiving behavioral system (CBS) is activated, it enables individuals to recall a repertoire of caring behaviors they have previously experienced (George and Solomon, 2008). This activation may explain why empathetic individuals are more predisposed to engage in prosocial behaviors.

Together, these systems form a theoretical framework for understanding the associations among attachment, empathy, and prosocial tendencies. The attachment behavioral system focuses on seeking care and forming secure bonds, while the CBS emphasizes providing care and ensuring the well-being of others. Both systems are crucial for developing healthy, supportive attachments and fostering empathetic and altruistic behaviors.

Numerous studies demonstrate a positive association between attachment and prosocial tendencies in both human-human and human-animal interactions (Thompson and Gullone, 2008; Langston, 2014; Hawkins and Williams, 2017; Malonda et al., 2019; Costa Martins et al., 2022; Berendzen, 2023; Deneault et al., 2023). Drawing from Bowlby’s attachment theory, which underscores the importance of emotional bonds, particularly between infants and caregivers, this paper delves into the foundational role of attachment in influencing prosocial tendencies. According to research, secure attachment, nurtured through responsive caregiving (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2005), not only influences individuals’ self-perception but also prompts caregiving behaviors (Gillath et al., 2005). Moreover, studies by Thompson and Gullone (2008), Schoeps et al. (2020), and Pan et al. (2022) consistently highlight empathy as a key mediator in the relationship between attachment and prosocial inclinations. These studies, conducted across various populations including Chinese, American, and Spanish adolescents, reveal a pattern wherein stronger attachments correlate with higher levels of empathy, subsequently leading to increased engagement in prosocial acts. With the growing recognition of pets as attachment figures (Kurdek, 2009; Zilcha-Mano et al., 2012; Rockett and Carr, 2014; Meehan et al., 2017) and their positive correlation with prosocial behaviors (Thompson and Gullone, 2008; Langston, 2014; Hawkins and Williams, 2017; Berendzen, 2023), coupled with an understanding of empathy’s pivotal role in linking attachment and prosocial tendencies observed in human-to-human interactions, this study aims to investigate whether empathy similarly acts as a mediator in the context of human-animal interactions.

The primary aim of the present study was to examine the impact of pet attachment on prosocial attitude. The findings of the study are detailed below. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics and correlations of the study variables. Findings revealed linear associations between the study variables. Pet attachment displayed a linear association with both animal empathy (r = 0.22, p < 0.001) and prosocial attitude (r = 0.25, p < =0.001). Similarly, a linear association was also present between animal empathy and prosocial attitude (r = 0.24, p < 0.001).

Table 2 presents the results of a simple linear regression analysis examining the relationship between pet attachment and prosocial attitude. The findings indicate that pet attachment accounted for 6% of the variance in prosocial attitude [R² = 0.065, F(1, 341) = 23.553, p < 0.000]. This suggests that while pet attachment has a statistically significant effect on prosocial attitude (β = 0.031, t = 4.853, p < 0.001), its predictive capacity is relatively modest.

Table 3 and Figure 2 show the influence of pet attachment on prosocial attitude as mediated by animal empathy. The study hypothesized that pet attachment would positively predict prosocial attitude, and further posited that empathy toward animals may mediate this relationship. Following Hayes bootstrapping analysis, the findings supported the hypothesis that pet attachment predicts animal empathy (β = 0.74, p < 0.001). Additionally, the results revealed that animal empathy predicts prosocial attitude (β = 0.007, p < 0.001). Overall, the indirect effect analysis indicated that animal empathy mediates the relationship between pet attachment and prosocial attitude (ab = 0.0058, p < 0.001), and it accounts 20.9% in the variance of prosocial attitude.

Moreover, the total effect analysis demonstrated that pet attachment positively predicts prosocial attitude (β = 0.028, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the direct effect analysis revealed that even in the presence of animal empathy as a mediator, pet attachment still significantly impacts prosocial attitude (β = 0.0312, p < 0.001). These results suggest that animal empathy has a partial mediating influence on the association between pet attachment and prosocial attitude.

The study investigates the extension of the attachment-prosocial behavior relationship, mediated by empathy in human-human interactions, to human-animal interactions. The hypotheses posit: (1) a positive association between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes; (2) a positive link between pet attachment and empathy toward animals; (3) a positive correlation between empathy toward animals and prosocial attitudes; and (4) the mediation of the relationship between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes by empathy toward animals.

Our study confirms a positive association between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes, echoing findings from Hawkins et al. (2017) who also observed this link, albeit in children. Our research, involving adults, extends this notion, suggesting that attachment relationships can influence prosocial tendencies beyond childhood. Additionally, our results align with Costa Martins et al.’s (2022) systematic review, indicating that attachment relationships commonly contribute to the development of prosocial behaviors. Notably, our study expands this understanding into the domain of Human–Animal Interaction (HAI), suggesting that fostering prosocial attitudes can occur within HAI contexts, not limited to human-human interactions. Although our study demonstrates the predictive power of pet attachment on prosocial attitudes, the effect size appears relatively modest compared to previous findings by Hawkins et al. (2017).

This study also confirms the positive link between pet attachment and empathy toward animals, consistent with existing research (Rothgerber and Mican, 2014; Khalid and Naqvi, 2016; Hawkins et al., 2017; Jacobson and Chang, 2018; Gujarathi and Chatterjee, 2021) and attachment theory (Gillath et al., 2005; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2005; Shaver et al., 2016). Attachment theory posits that pet attachment fosters animal empathy through the Internal Working Model (IWM), shaped by interactions with caregivers (Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011; Shaver et al., 2016). This model consists of the self-perception (IWM of self) and perceptions of others (IWM of others) (Costa Martins et al., 2022; Sanctis and Mesurado, 2022; Xu et al., 2022), with the attachment figure representing entities beyond the self (Gillath et al., 2005; Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011). Observing attentive caregiving from pets influences individuals to perceive themselves as loved or valued, shaping the IWM of self, and recognizing others as deserving of care, shaping the IWM of others (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2005; Shaver et al., 2016). Consequently, attachment relationships with pets serve as a basis for cultivating empathetic concern toward animals (Gillath et al., 2005; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2005; Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011; Shaver et al., 2016).

Furthermore, the current study establishes a link between animal empathy and prosocial attitudes toward humans, revealing that empathy toward animals predicts prosocial attitude. While the impact of animal empathy on prosocial attitudes is significant, it remains relatively modest. Empathy is widely recognized as a catalyst for prosocial tendencies, a concept supported by previous research (Lockwood et al., 2014; Silke et al., 2018; Stern and Cassidy, 2018; Wice et al., 2020; Călin et al., 2021). Attachment theory suggests that individuals’ inclination toward prosocial behavior stems from the caregiving behavioral system (CBS), distinct from the attachment behavioral system (Gillath et al., 2005; Shaver et al., 2010). Unlike seeking proximity to attachment figures during distress, the CBS motivates individuals to provide support and serve as a secure base for distressed others. This altruistic nature of the CBS, activated by recognizing distress in others, extends beyond identity-driven motivations, accounting for care toward species beyond one’s own (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2005; Zilcha-Mano et al., 2011; Shaver et al., 2016).

The influence of animal empathy on prosocial attitudes toward humans may arise from individuals incorporating empathetic processes learned from animals into their interactions with humans, considering pets as representatives of others in attachment relationships (Shaver et al., 2016; Schoeps et al., 2020; Xu et al., 2022). Pets assume the role of attachment figures, shaping individuals’ mental representations or Internal Working Models (IWMs) of others, which may influence attitudes toward fellow humans (Young et al., 2018; Prato-Previde et al., 2022). Indeed, research indicates that empathetic processes toward animals and humans are intertwined, with animal empathy influencing empathetic responses toward humans in attachment relationships (Stoeckel et al., 2014; Vanutelli and Balconi, 2015; Gómez-Leal et al., 2021). Animal empathy may moderate the functions of the CBS, particularly in recognizing distress cues shared through mammalian nature, leading to the expression of prosocial attitudes (Gillath et al., 2005; Mikulincer and Shaver, 2005; Shaver et al., 2010, 2016).

Finally, the current study provides evidence supporting the hypothesis that animal empathy mediates the relationship between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes. Mediation analysis reveals that one pathway through which attachment to pets predicts prosocial behavior is by fostering animal empathy. Specifically, animal empathy has a significant yet modest partial mediating effect on the association between pet attachment and prosocial attitudes. These findings align with previous research by Thompson and Gullone (2008) and Knox et al. (2022), which also identified affective empathy as a mediator between pet attachment and prosociality, with partial mediation observed. In contrast, Schoeps et al. (2020) found that cognitive empathy fully mediated the relationship between attachment and prosocial tendencies in human-human relationships, contrasting with our focus on human–animal interactions.

The partial mediation of animal empathy suggests that other aspects of pet attachment may also mediate its link with prosocial behavior. Additionally, attachment theory posits that attachment relationships can influence prosocial attitudes independently of empathetic processes. The activation of the caregiving behavioral system (CBS), triggered by recognizing distress cues, may prompt prosocial tendencies even without heightened empathy. Research by Sundell (2019) suggests that individuals can recognize emotional cues and exhibit automatic matching responses to emotional stimuli, even without empathy. This implies that individuals may demonstrate prosocial behavior based on their innate ability to perceive and respond to emotional signals, triggering the CBS. However, the development of empathy may require learning and the absence of inhibiting factors.

The study highlights the relationship between attachment and prosocial behavior, particularly in the context of human-animal interaction (HAI). Findings suggest that the emotional connection with pets provides a foundation for increasing prosocial attitudes toward humans. Pet attachment’s ability to predict prosocial behavior may be attributed to its impact on animal empathy. Individuals often regard their pets as attachment figures deserving of care, influencing them to empathize with their pets’ well-being during stressful circumstances. As animal empathy develops, a propensity toward prosocial behavior emerges, likely resulting from individuals incorporating learned empathetic processes from animals into their interactions with humans, viewing pets as representatives in their Internal Working Model (IWM) of others. The presence of animal empathy enables individuals to discern distress signals, particularly those common in mammalian nature, potentially activating the caregiving behavioral system (CBS). This activation of the CBS may prompt the expression of prosocial tendencies as individuals recall various caring behaviors.

The study results should be approached with caution due to several limitations. One limitation is the reliance on a specific animal empathy scale, which may have inadequate psychometric properties for Southeast Asia. Moreover, the scarcity of scales focusing on cognitive empathetic processes presents a notable constraint. Future research should aim to develop and validate an animal empathy scale tailored to the Southeast Asian context, incorporating cognitive processes. Another limitation is the sole reliance on pet attachment strength to assess prosocial attitude development, potentially overlooking other relevant aspects of human-animal interaction. Future studies should explore additional factors, such as attachment orientation within the pet bond, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the development of prosocial attitudes in human-animal interactions (HAI). Additionally, research should focus on examining the relationship between empathy toward humans and prosocial attitudes toward animals. We also acknowledge that our sample may have biases, potentially limiting the generalizability to other populations of pet owners. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data could introduce response bias. Future research should include more diverse samples to enhance applicability.

Despite these limitations, the study’s findings bear substantial theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, the study extends attachment theory to encompass HAI, emphasizing the role of non-human relationships in understanding human social behavior. Furthermore, it underscores the mediating influence of animal empathy, suggesting that individuals demonstrating empathy toward animals are more likely to exhibit prosocial behaviors toward humans. This integration of empathy and prosociality implies a shared mechanism underlying prosocial behavior across diverse relationship contexts, emphasizing the complexity of human social behavior.

Practically, the study suggests that animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) hold promise for increasing prosocial attitudes, particularly in therapeutic settings where animals facilitate empathy and prosocial behavior, especially among vulnerable populations. Educational initiatives targeting empathy toward animals could also play a vital role in promoting prosocial attitudes and behaviors. By raising awareness about the significance of empathy toward animals and its broader impact on social interactions, schools, community organizations, and mental health institutions can contribute to promoting a more empathetic and prosocial society. Moreover, the study underscores the importance of cultivating positive relationships between humans and animals for the well-being of both parties. Animal welfare policies and practices should prioritize promoting healthy and empathetic interactions between individuals and their pets, recognizing the mutual benefits of such relationships for human and animal welfare.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by Central Luzon State University Ethics Review Committee (ERC Code: 2022-323). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

JF: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. ED: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. LD: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. LF: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. YS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. EA: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.