In the literature on stress and wellbeing, the concept of mindfulness has become a rising and staying star. Core topics in this research tradition have centered around the question of how mindfulness can be systematically fostered by specific training and interventions to enhance mental wellbeing (e.g., Jamieson and Tuckey, 2017; Bartlett et al., 2019). In particular, the mindfulness-based stress reduction program (MBSR) (Kabat-Zinn, 2003) has been successfully applied to reduce stress in the workplace (Khoury et al., 2015; Vibe et al., 2017). However, to craft a more enriching work experience that concurrently enhances performance and wellbeing, it is essential to shift the focus from stress reduction alone to the promotion of optimal functioning. One of the most important indicators of optimal psychological functioning at work is flow experience, which is characterized by an engrossing experience during intense concentration on the current task and therefore fosters wellbeing and performance simultaneously (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). Previous research about the positive effects of mindfulness on wellbeing and motivation suggests that MBSR training could be utilized beyond a reduction of stress and foster optimal psychological functioning in the workplace (Khoury et al., 2015; Vibe et al., 2017). However, prior studies assessing the effects of mindfulness on flow experience have created mixed results (Sheldon et al., 2015). Hence, despite these potential benefits of mindfulness at work to foster flow experience and the widespread application of the MBSR training off-the-job and within companies (Grossman et al., 2004; Bartlett et al., 2019), our knowledge of whether the MBSR program can successfully enhance optimal experience in the work context, as indicated by flow experience, remains limited.

Even though scholars provided initial evidence that mindful individuals also tend to experience more flow (Kee and Wang, 2008; Moore, 2013), research also showed that mindful perception of the situation and the absorption during flow cannot be experienced simultaneously (Sheldon et al., 2015). Addressing this paradox, we focus on how a build-up in mindfulness over the training duration of several weeks can influence flow and stress. In doing so, we delineate our research model based on the transactional model of stress and flow (TSF) (Peifer and Tan, 2021), which extends the traditional transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). In particular, we argue that a build-up of mindfulness over the training duration of the MBSR training enables an increase in flow experience along with a decrease in stress. During the training, participants develop a clearer and more accepting perception of demanding situations as well as more efficient resource allocation (Glomb et al., 2011; Good et al., 2016), which facilitates flow and reduces stress as work situations are perceived as positive challenges rather than stressors (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984; Peifer and Wolters, 2021). Accordingly, with a weekly assessment of mindfulness, flow experience, and stress during the MBSR training and an inactive control group, we examine the change trajectories in these variables as well as their relations. In doing so, we extend previous research about the effects of the MBSR training that has mainly focused on the comparison between pre- and post-measurement (e.g., Bartlett et al., 2019; Dust et al., 2021; Lyddy et al., 2021).

Furthermore, the relations between the change trajectory of mindfulness and the trajectories of stress and flow experience at work are likely contingent upon the individual’s level of resources, indicated by emotional exhaustion, which refers to a chronic state of depleted emotional and physiological resources (Cropanzano et al., 2003). If resources are depleted at work, for instance by job demands, and individuals show high emotional exhaustion, a more efficient allocation of remaining resources is especially important to prevent their interpretation as a stressor but positive challenge. Accordingly, we hypothesize emotional exhaustion to moderate (i.e., strengthen) the positive association between changes in mindfulness and changes in both stress and flow experiences. Figure 1 depicts our conceptual model.

In summary, our study extends the current state of research in at least three ways. Firstly, by focusing on a timeframe of several weeks, we provide new insights into whether mindfulness and related interventions can be utilized to promote flow experiences as critical indicators of optimal functioning at work. Despite certain dimensions of mindfulness and flow appearing incompatible (Sheldon et al., 2015), we contribute to the existing literature on workplace interventions by exploring the potential of the MBSR training to enhance flow experience, thereby opening up new opportunities for cultivating optimal functioning within the workplace. In doing so, our research not only enhances our understanding of the relations between mindfulness and flow but also holds promise for improving wellbeing and performance in work environments.

Second, while previous studies have primarily compared pre- and post-measurements of mindfulness interventions, our study takes a different approach by examining the shape of the trajectory of mindfulness, stress, and flow over time. By investigating the diverse change patterns, such as stable growth or quadratic trajectories, as well as their relationships, we offer new insights into the unfolding of the MBSR program and its effects on individuals in the workplace. This longitudinal perspective enables us to provide a deeper understanding that can inform the development and implementation of more effective mindfulness-based interventions.

Lastly, we highlight the role of interpersonal differences in emotional exhaustion when examining the benefits of mindfulness intervention on flow and stress. As recent evidence suggests that mindfulness-based interventions may not always facilitate psychological health (Farias et al., 2020; Britton et al., 2021), a thorough investigation of how chronically depleted resources interact with changes in mindfulness adds to our understanding of stress prevention and long-term wellbeing stabilization. In other words, we provide novel insights into the interplay of interpersonal boundary conditions and intra-personal changes in mindfulness in predicting employees’ wellbeing over time.

Mindfulness is conceptualized as meta-cognitive awareness that involves an intentional observation of internal and external experiences at the present moment in an accepting and open manner (Good et al., 2016). By decoupling the self (e.g., self-concept, self-esteem, ego) from those experiences, individuals in a mindful state perceive their experiences neutrally (Glomb et al., 2011). The MBSR training is one of the most known mindfulness interventions that entails several mindfulness practices over the course of 8 weeks reducing stress, depression as well as anxiety and fostering (self-)compassion, empathy, and mental health (Eberth and Sedlmeier, 2012; Khoury et al., 2015; for further details about the training program see Santorelli et al., 2017). Considering mindfulness as an explaining mechanism, several reviews and meta-analyses comparing pre- and post-measurements support the claim that the MBSR training reduces stress (e.g., Khoury et al., 2015; Vibe et al., 2017; Bartlett et al., 2019). In contrast, previous studies yield mixed evidence for the effects of mindfulness on the engrossing experience of flow (Kee and Wang, 2008; Sheldon et al., 2015), while the effects of the MBSR training or similar mindfulness interventions have not been investigated yet. In particular, the distinct nature of complete absorption in flow contrasts with the open awareness encompassed in mindfulness (Sheldon et al., 2015). However, facets of mindfulness such as heightened attentional control and present-moment focus may facilitate the experience of flow (Kee and Wang, 2008; Moore, 2013). By resolving this discrepancy, we acknowledge that mindfulness and flow cannot be experienced simultaneously but anticipate that the development of mindfulness, including specific aspects like present-moment attention and sustained attention, throughout the multi-week MBSR training, will contribute to an increase in the frequency of flow experiences.

To further derive our predictions about how changes in mindfulness affect changes in stress and flow during the MBSR training, we draw on the TSF (Peifer and Tan, 2021), which integrates the transactional stress model (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984) and insights from the flow channel model (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). These models highlight that a similar situation can be experienced as stressful or as positive challenge, depending on the individuals’ perception of demands and available resources. When the perceived demands exceed available resources, individuals may appraise the situation as a threat and experience stress or anxiety (Peifer and Tan, 2021). In contrast, individuals may view a situation as positive challenge and experience flow, when they perceive a high-level balance between those (Peifer and Tan, 2021). Integrating these notions from the TSF with previous research that has repeatedly shown that mindfulness can improve coping with stress and view demanding situations as positive challenges (Garland et al., 2017; Jamieson and Tuckey, 2017; Beer et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020), we assume that the development of mindfulness during the MBSR training evokes a decrease in stress as well as an increase in flow. In particular, by gradually increasing attention to present-moment experiences and reducing the automatization of cognitive processes during the MBSR program, individuals can evaluate situations more composedly and be less influenced by emotions and automated thought patterns such as worrying. Hence, they can allocate cognitive resources more efficiently (Bishop et al., 2004; Glomb et al., 2011; Good et al., 2016). Further, with increasing mindfulness during the MBSR program, internal and external stimuli such as demands or emotions become more decoupled from initial judgments and observed in an accepting way (Glomb et al., 2011). Therefore, demanding aspects or situations are likely to be less threatening and intruding which reduces perceived stress over time (Beer et al., 2020). In contrast, individuals can concentrate all available resources on the task itself establishing a high-level balance between demands and skills and enabling more flow during the mindfulness training (Beer et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2020).

Despite the aim of the MBSR training to increase mindfulness and decrease stress over time, there is a scarcity of research investigating the specific patterns of change in these variables (Snippe et al., 2017; Andreotti et al., 2018). The MBSR training follows a structured program, which includes weekly training sessions with theoretical explanations and various mindfulness exercises (e.g., body scanning, and present-moment awareness; Santorelli et al., 2017). Participants develop and refine their mindfulness skills through these exercises, leading to a heightened state of mindfulness over time (Baer et al., 2012). Therefore, we expect a consistent and gradual increase in mindfulness, represented by a positive linear trajectory throughout the eight-week training duration. Supporting this prediction, Baer et al. (2012) found descriptive evidence for a linear increase in mindfulness over the training period. By integrating the anticipated linear changes in mindfulness with the established effects on stress and flow, we propose that increased mindfulness will lead to a similar linear increase in flow experience and a decrease in stress. Regarding stress, Snippe et al. (2017) supported a linear decrease over the entire training duration, whereas Baer et al. (2012) observed a (linear) change only after the third week. Positive indicators of optimal functioning, such as the autotelic experience of flow, have not been examined to date. Accordingly, based on notions of the TSF and supported by initial empirical evidence for linear change patterns (Baer et al., 2012; Snippe et al., 2017; Peifer and Tan, 2021), we put forward the following hypotheses:

Linking our predictions on trajectories to the proposed effects of MBSR training and mindfulness on flow and stress, we derive the following hypotheses. Because we consider mindfulness as the core mechanism of the effects of the MBSR training (Pascoe et al., 2017; Vibe et al., 2017), we propose changes in mindfulness to mediate the effects of the MBSR training on changes in flow and stress.

Moreover, the effects of changes in mindfulness on changes in flow and stress are likely dependent on the individual level of emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion represents the core dimension of burnout and results from prolonged strain that reflects chronically depleted resources due to high work demands (Demerouti et al., 2001). Whereas emotional exhaustion represents a relatively persistent state that can last over longer time periods (Toppinen-Tanner et al., 2002), fatigue and stress vary largely within individuals and are strongly influenced by current demands (e.g., Baethge and Rigotti, 2013; Hülsheger, 2016). Individuals with high emotional exhaustion have a lower baseline level of available resources, making them more likely to perceive demanding work situations as stressors rather than positive challenges (Trougakos et al., 2015). Mindfulness can be especially helpful for individuals with low resource availability by promoting a clearer perception of the situation which is less influenced by negative experiences such as feeling overwhelmed (Good et al., 2016). Enhanced attentional control enables individuals to stay focused on the task at hand and overcome worries or negative emotions, which also facilitates a more efficient allocation of remaining resources (Glomb et al., 2011). Given the importance of overcoming negative states and effectively allocating limited resources for chronically depleted individuals, we expect the build-up of mindfulness over the training duration to exert stronger effects on changes in stress and flow experience for individuals with high emotional exhaustion compared to those with low emotional exhaustion. Accordingly, previous research has suggested that mindfulness is particularly beneficial for individuals with chronic feelings of depletion and recurring worries or negative moods (Baer, 2003; Creswell and Lindsay, 2014).

In conclusion, in the present study, we delineate and examine a moderated mediation model in which we predict that the MBSR program will lead to a linear increase in mindfulness which subsequently leads to a linear increase in flow experience as well as a linear decrease in stress. In addition, we propose that the positive effects of the increase in mindfulness on the increase in flow and the decrease in stress are amplified by individual levels of emotional exhaustion.

Table 1 summarizes descriptive statistics of the measured variables including means, standard deviations, and Cronbach’s alpha.

Our study explored the temporal changes in mindfulness, stress, and flow experience during the MBSR program as well as their relations. Building on previous research, we found a consistent linear increase in mindfulness and a linear decrease in stress over the training duration. Additionally, based on the TSF (Peifer and Tan, 2021), our findings supported the notion that the MBSR training can promote optimal functioning, as indicated by a linear increase in flow experience. Moreover, we investigated the moderating role of emotional exhaustion and revealed that individuals with high emotional exhaustion benefited more from the effects of mindfulness on flow experience and stress reduction.

Whereas some interventions have been implemented in sports to foster flow experience (e.g., Koehn et al., 2014; Scott-Hamilton et al., 2016), only a few have been developed for the workplace (for an exception see Bartzik et al., 2021). Our findings support the idea that mindfulness and related interventions, such as the MBSR training, have the capacity to foster flow, despite certain dimensions appearing incompatible. While flow and mindfulness have been regarded as conceptually divergent, with mindfulness involving broad attentional awareness and self-awareness while flow entails a narrow focus without self-awareness (Sheldon et al., 2015), our study supports the proposition that the development of mindfulness over time can facilitate flow. By cultivating a clearer perception of demanding situations and efficient allocation of cognitive resources, individuals can gradually shift their interpretation of these situations as positive challenges rather than stressors. This notion from the TSF (Peifer and Tan, 2021) is also supported by previous research indicating the positive impact of mindfulness on the reappraisal of situations (Garland et al., 2015, 2017). By revealing a positive relationship between temporal changes in mindfulness and flow during the MBSR training, our study bridges the gap between the incompatibility of certain dimensions of mindfulness and flow and the potential of mindfulness to enhance flow. Taking a longitudinal perspective in investigating the effects of mindfulness on flow, we extend previous research that primarily relied on pre- and post-measurements of mindfulness interventions and enhance our understanding of the dynamic relationship between these constructs, which can inform the development of more effective mindfulness-based interventions to promote optimal functioning at work. In future research, it is important to explore and compare the effects of different mindfulness-based interventions on flow, considering factors such as the duration of interventions, specific exercises employed (e.g., breathing exercises, body scans, meditation), and the target audience (e.g., employees, leaders), to further enhance our knowledge in this area.

Furthermore, our study adds to the current literature on the effects of mindfulness interventions by investigating the shape of the trajectories of mindfulness, stress, and flow over time. Previous research has largely overlooked the diverse change patterns and their relationships within mindfulness interventions. By examining the shape of trajectories of these variables, we provide a deeper understanding of how the MBSR program unfolds and its effects on individuals in the workplace. Our results indicate a positive linear increase in mindfulness and a linear decrease in stress over the training duration, aligning with previous studies that have also observed a gradual increase in these variables during MBSR training (Baer et al., 2012; Snippe et al., 2017) and other mindfulness-based interventions over several weeks (Garland et al., 2017; Andreotti et al., 2018). Contrary to results from Baer et al. (2012), who revealed a reduction in stress only starting in the third week, and the findings from a qualitative analysis by Isbel et al. (2020), who revealed greater effort toward the beginning and greater benefits toward the end of a long-term intervention, a linear change implies a continuous growth of mindfulness and reduction of stress, independently of the current time point. Despite the aim of most mindfulness-based interventions to increase optimized functioning (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Good et al., 2016), surprisingly, the temporal changes in flow experience during the MBSR program have not been extensively examined. Our study fills this gap by revealing a linear increase in flow experience, expanding our understanding of the effects of mindfulness interventions on individuals’ overall wellbeing. In light of previous research showing curvilinear trajectories in other wellbeing indicators such as rumination and heart rate variability (Andreotti et al., 2018; Krick et al., 2021), future studies shall continue to explore the trajectories of various indicators of wellbeing separately. Accordingly, future studies may also assess how other indicators of wellbeing and optimal functioning that have been investigated as outcomes of the MBSR training, such as emotional regulation, quality of life, or physical health (Eberth and Sedlmeier, 2012; Vibe et al., 2017), develop during the training duration.

Lastly, as predicted by our fourth hypothesis, emotional exhaustion amplified the positive effect of the trajectory of mindfulness on the trajectory of flow experience as well as the negative effect on the trajectory of stress. Especially in demanding sectors, such as health care or education, where emotional exhaustion tends to be concerningly high (Bridgeman et al., 2018; Park and Shin, 2020), a mindfulness-based intervention can be helpful to reduce stress and enable the experience of flow, which has been associated with higher wellbeing and performance (Peifer and Wolters, 2021). These results are particularly important in light of recent research that revealed potential negative effects of mindfulness and meditation such as increased stress, anxiety, or negative affect under certain circumstances (e.g., Britton, 2019; Farias et al., 2020; Britton et al., 2021). By examining the impact of the MBSR training on the wellbeing of chronically depleted individuals, we ensure that those who may be vulnerable to side effects can still benefit from the intervention, leading to enhanced wellbeing rather than diminished outcomes. Furthermore, in the long term, higher levels of mindfulness may also reduce emotional exhaustion (Hülsheger et al., 2013; Good et al., 2016). In line with this, in a randomized controlled trial, Verweij et al. (2018) could reveal a negative effect of the MBSR training on emotional exhaustion for individuals with high baseline levels of emotional exhaustion. These results conform with our proposition that the MBSR training is more beneficial for chronically depleted individuals and additionally imply circular effects (i.e., the intervention reduces emotional exhaustion which in turn reduces the beneficial effects of the intervention on emotional exhaustion). Further, emotional exhaustion and flow experience show a negative relationship (Aust et al., 2022), so that the training might be even more effective to increase optimal functioning for depleted individuals. Future studies that investigate the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on indicators of wellbeing and performance should take these results into account and test for possible baseline interactions as well as circular effects.

In conclusion, we were able to shed light on how an MBSR intervention enhances wellbeing in the work context and for whom mindfulness is most beneficial. Based on the TSF, we provide a profound theoretical explanation of how increases in mindfulness are associated with increases in flow and decreases in stress during the MBSR training. In doing so, this research expands the application of mindfulness in the workplace by examining flow experience as an indicator of optimal psychological functioning. Additionally, we demonstrate that the program is particularly beneficial for individuals with high emotional exhaustion. These findings highlight the potential of the MBSR intervention to support the wellbeing and mental health of depleted employees.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

The studies involving humans were approved by the ethics committee of the University of Wuppertal. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

CH: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. FE: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. CP: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. SD: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.