Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder and is the most common learning disability in school-age children (Peterson and Pennington, 2015). It is characterized by difficulties in word recognition, spelling and decoding (Becker et al., 2017). Despite normal intelligence, complete sensory abilities, and adequate educational opportunities, children with dyslexia have serious and persistent problems in acquiring reading skills (Peterson and Pennington, 2015). This disorder is often linked to impairments in phonological processing, verbal processing speed, and verbal short-term memory (Snowling, 2012). Recent research has highlighted that dyslexia can influence various aspects of mathematical ability, such as understanding number concepts, memorizing arithmetic, and solving mathematical problems (Joyner and Wagner, 2020). This suggesting that difficulties in arithmetic, reading or spelling, are notably more prevalent among children with academic challenges (Georgitsi et al., 2021). Moreover, studies have demonstrated that DD affects approximately 10% of children (Doust et al., 2022) and 3–12.6% of school-age children in China (Feng et al., 2022), which can persist into adulthood. Unfortunately, dyslexia not only prevents children from enjoying reading, but also increases their learning difficulties and often deprives them of opportunities to develop other potential, which in turn has a considerable negative impact on mental health outcomes and behaviors (Soriano-Ferrer et al., 2021; Xiao et al., 2023). Therefore, DD is an important public health issue that deserves attention.

The etiology of dyslexia is multifactorial, with research indicating that it arises from a combination of genetic and environmental risk factors and their interactions (Peterson and Pennington, 2015). Dyslexia often recurs in families, with the majority of twin studies reporting a heritability of 40–60% (Gialluisi et al., 2021). Building on this foundation, recent genetic research has identified several genetic loci associated with dyslexia and proposed some candidate genes (Doust et al., 2022). These candidate genes, including DCDC2, KIAA0319 (6p22.3), DYX1C1, GCFC2, ROBO1 (3p12.3-p12.3), and LOC388780, most of which are not only linked to dyslexia but also to persistent individual differences in related cognitive skills (such as word reading, spelling, etc.) (Gialluisi et al., 2021; Doust et al., 2022). Furthermore, the identified candidate risk genes associated with neural migration and brain development indicate that dyslexia may stem from atypical neural migration during brain development (Gabrieli, 2009). Moreover, functional neuroimaging studies have revealed differences in brain function and connectivity that are characteristic of dyslexia (Perdue et al., 2022). While extensive research into the neurophysiological and genetic underpinnings has been instrumental in identifying the occurrence of dyslexia, it has provided limited guidance for its prevention and intervention. Dyslexia may be a lifelong condition, but timely and early intervention can improve reading abilities, thereby enhancing prognosis. As research progresses, scholars are delving deeper into environmental factors that heighten the risk of dyslexia, including prenatal and perinatal environments, school settings and family environments (Feng et al., 2022; Torppa et al., 2022). Among these, the family environment, closely related to children’s lives, plays a significant role in influencing dyslexia and is the most amenable to intervention. Its impact on identifying the causes of dyslexia and on early intervention studies is profound, necessitating further research into related aspects of dyslexia in the Chinese language.

Considering that families share both genetic material and environmental factors, it’s conceivable that dyslexia might also arise as a consequence of environmental influences linked to low literacy levels (Torppa et al., 2022). Many studies have shown that the occurrence of dyslexia is closely related to family environment (Dilnot et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2021). The home literacy environment (HLE) is used to describe the interactions, resources, and attitudes that children experience at home related to literacy, such as parent–child literacy-related activities, family books, usage of electronic devices etc. (He et al., 2014). Previous studies have studied the HLE from various aspects. Meanwhile, extensive research has underscored the relationship between the HLE and children’s reading development, acknowledging that while certain aspects of HLE, including quality interactions and access to reading materials, positively contribute to reading skills (Lau and Richards, 2020; Torppa et al., 2022), careful consideration is required regarding the role of screen time, which may have varied impacts. Recent American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) recommendations suggest that increased screen time, instead, delays child brain and language development, aligning with the results of a cross-sectional study in the United States (Hutton et al., 2020). The HLE explains 12–18.5 percent of the variation in children’s language skills (Niklas et al., 2020). Frank Niklas et al. stated that the relationship between parental attitudes toward shared reading and children’s language ability was mediated by the HLE (Niklas et al., 2020). A Finnish longitudinal study also found that the HLE plays a crucial role in the development of dyslexia in children (Torppa et al., 2022). Importantly, a good reading atmosphere at home was a conducive condition for promoting the development of children’s early reading skills (Hamilton et al., 2016). Rashid conducted a study among dyslexic children and found a significant correlation between HLE and children’s passage comprehension as well as spelling scores (Rashid et al., 2005). Similarly, recent research has confirmed that Chinese children with dyslexia often come from homes with poor literacy environments (He et al., 2014; Feng et al., 2022). Therefore, the HLE is a crucial factor in the development of reading ability in children.

Parenting styles are the methods and forms commonly used by parents in the raising and education of their children, with a relatively stable style of behavior (Guo et al., 2022). Parenting styles permeate the parent–child interaction process and have a significant impact on children’s personality, mental health, and especially their academic performance (Watson et al., 2023; Zhong et al., 2023). Parenting styles are categorized into four types: emotional warmth, rejection, overprotecting and anxious rearing. Each style has distinct characteristics and impacts on children. Notably, adverse parenting styles, such as those marked by rejection or overprotection, are linked to an increased risk of emotional and behavioral problems among children (Zou et al., 2020). In contrast, an environment nurtured by parental support and engagement significantly diminishes these challenges, fostering a more positive developmental outcome. Conversely, a hostile or overly controlling parenting approach exacerbates children’s behavioral and emotional problems (Wang et al., 2024). Specifically, a parenting style characterized by high rejection and low emotional warmth may lead to problematic child-rearing practices, including insufficient supervision, harsh discipline, and a negative family environment (Penelo et al., 2010). A study conducted in Turkey indicated that parenting styles marked by rejection, lack of emotional warmth and overprotection predicted behavioral problems in children (Eruyar et al., 2020). Additional research indicates parenting styles characterized by overprotection and anxious rearing may increase the risk of dyslexia in children (Huang et al., 2021). This correlation is further highlighted by the challenges faced by parents of dyslexic children, emphasizing the difficulty in providing effective support and the significant impact of parenting styles on dyslexia (Natale et al., 2008; Carotenuto et al., 2017). On the other side, numerous studies have demonstrated that parenting care is necessary to meet the needs of children’s brain development and that positive parenting (authoritative parenting style) reduces the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders in children (Chronis et al., 2007; Daelmans et al., 2017). This style is characterized by a warm, nurturing approach that combines clear expectations and guidance with respect for children’s autonomy, consistent with emotional warmth. Furthermore, a survey among Portuguese children has shown that positive parenting styles significantly contribute to higher reading processes, encompassing both syntactic and semantic aspects (Carreteiro et al., 2016). Therefore, parenting styles are particularly crucial for children with dyslexia, as these variables can either increase risk or serve as protective factors. Given the intricate relationship between parenting styles and children’s developmental outcomes, further research is essential to expand our understanding and provide actionable insights for fostering environments that support healthy development, particularly for children facing learning challenges such as dyslexia.

Despite the growing body of research on parenting styles and their impact on neurodevelopmental disorders, there has been limited focus on how parenting styles specifically influence dyslexic children. Therefore, further exploration of the mediating factors in the relationship between parenting styles and dyslexia in children is necessary. We propose that the HLE could be a significant predictor of dyslexia, potentially interacting with parent–child interaction at home and influencing children’s literacy development. To delve deeper into this relationship and its underlying mechanisms, selecting the appropriate assessment tool is crucial. It is with this necessity in mind that we chose the Egna Minnen Beträffande Uppfostran for Children (EMBU-C) questionnaire for our study. Our choice of the EMBU-C was driven by its comprehensive approach to evaluating parenting styles, which is critical for understanding the family environmental factors influencing dyslexia. Our preference for the EMBU-C over other instruments was based on several considerations. First, its detailed focus on children’s perspectives aligns with our research objective to explore the mediating role of the home literacy environment in the association between parenting styles and dyslexia. Secondly, the EMBU-C’s success in cross-cultural research guarantees its applicability to a wide audience. Its use in previous studies has proven effective in connecting parenting styles with outcomes like academic achievement and mental health issues (Saleem et al., 2015; Eruyar et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2021). Lastly, the questionnaire’s comprehensive nature allows for a deeper understanding of the complex interactions within the family that may contribute to or mitigate the risk of dyslexia.

To date, no prior studies have specifically examined the relationships among parenting styles, HLE, and dyslexia in Chinese children. Therefore, the aim of this study is to address two key questions: (a) Is there a correlation between dyslexia and both parenting styles and HLE among Chinese children; (b) Could the HLE serve as a mediator in the relationship between parenting styles and dyslexia.

Developmental dyslexia, a common learning disability affecting numerous children, has garnered increasing attention in recent years (Peterson and Pennington, 2012). Recent studies showed that children with dyslexia are at risk of academic failure and emotional problems (Yang et al., 2022). Therefore, investigating the factors that influence dyslexia may lead to mitigating the consequences of this prevalent disease. In the present study, we aim to examine the relationship between parenting styles and dyslexia among Chinese children, with a specific focus on the potential mediating role of HLE. Our findings indicate a strong correlation between dyslexia, HLE, and parenting styles. More importantly, HLE was found to have a complete mediation effect on the association between parenting styles and reading ability. This study builds upon previous research by introducing innovative models that connect parenting styles to dyslexia in children, thus offering valuable insights for future interventions and educational practices.

Our findings indicate that the absence of regular reading time and high homework pressure are risk factors for dyslexia. In line with previous research, our results highlight a significant association between dyslexia and HLE in children (Georgiou et al., 2021; Bigozzi et al., 2023). Ensuring children have a designated reading time not only increases their overall reading exposure but also cultivates positive reading habits, thereby enhancing their vocabulary and reading skills. A longitudinal study spanning ages 2–15 found that the HLE positively impacts language and literacy development in preschoolers, leading to improved reading comprehension throughout childhood due to preschool-based skills and heightened motivation (Torppa et al., 2022). Several studies have also suggested that the relationship between HLE and children’s reading ability may be reciprocal, with children’s early reading ability influencing parental involvement in home literacy activities (Silinskas et al., 2020; Georgiou et al., 2021). However, a study from Japan did not find such results, but rather linked access to literacy resources to early reading development (Tanji and Inoue, 2023). We posit that this disparity may be attributed to the temporal nature of HLE effects, which diminish as children receive formal literacy instruction. Nevertheless, it is indisputable that a favorable HLE offers numerous opportunities for educational activities that foster children’s language and literacy skills.

On the other hand, consistent with our findings, there were pieces of evidence showing that a conscious learning habit had a significant impact on the occurrence of dyslexia (Feng et al., 2022). Learning habit is an individual automatic learning behavior, conscious study habits are conducive to stimulate the enthusiasm and initiative of students to learn. Children with positive learning habits generally show positive learning attitudes in campus and home learning, and will actively and enthusiastically discuss with the teacher in the classroom or communicate with their classmates to learn after class, and express their views more actively, which greatly improves their language expression ability and expression opportunities. From this perspective, it can be explained that conscious and active learning habits can improve children’s reading experience, which has an important impact on the acquisition of children’s reading knowledge and skills, and thus reduces the risk of dyslexia (Romero-González et al., 2023). In contrast, the presence of longer time and stressful difficulties in completing homework assignments in dyslexic children, in addition to a possible lack of conscious study habits, is more likely to be due to their poor reading skills related to difficulties in completing homework tasks (Xiao et al., 2022).

In recent years, there has been a growing focus on parenting styles in the research community, yet little attention has been paid to the relationship between dyslexia and parenting styles (Kiuru et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2021). Similar to prior researches (Carotenuto et al., 2017; Zou et al., 2023), our research has found a strong correlation between parenting style and dyslexia. In particular, negative correlations were observed with regard to parental emotional warmth, anxious rearing, and fathers’ overprotection. These results may reflect apathetic and neglectful attitudes of parents toward dyslexic children and inadequate care for dyslexic children, which is a negative rearing style. Research has shown that parents who adopt a neglectful parenting style demand less from their children and communicate less with them (Otani et al., 2009). We suggest that negative parenting styles may be due to the fact that the academic underachievement of dyslexic children affects parents’ parenting satisfaction and sense of efficacy, which leaves most parents disillusioned and appearing less protective and anxious than parents of typically developing children (Chen, 2015). This may also partly explain our results. Consistent with our findings, a Finnish study found that parents of dyslexic children have high parenting stress and struggle to provide effective help (Natale et al., 2008). That is, more adaptive parenting styles promote a better performance when compared with less adaptive parenting styles. Previous studies have indicated that parenting styles play an important role in explaining higher reading processes (syntactic and semantic) in children with dyslexia, as supported by main theories on dyslexia (Carreteiro et al., 2016). Therefore, our results add to the growing body of evidence highlighting the impact of parenting styles on children with dyslexia.

In addition, we found that the relationship between boys’ parenting style and dyslexia was more pronounced. To our knowledge, there is a general consensus among current researchers that boys are at a higher risk of developing dyslexia than girls (Arnett et al., 2017; Feng et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022). In line with a prior study, the gender of children had an impact on parenting styles (Zhong et al., 2023). Boys are given more responsibility, and parents are harsher, more rejecting and neglectful of boys, especially fathers, who are more likely to be strict with boys in home education. However, parents are more willing to tolerate girls. Also, there are differences in the personalities of boys and girls; boys are active and disobedient, while girls are more obedient and well-behaved, so parents are harsher and prone to punishment and rejection of boys, and are more tolerant and provide emotional warmth to girl (Barnett and Baruch, 1987). Thus, we should pay more attention to the way boys are parented, to be emotional warmth, tolerant and protective enough to help prevent dyslexia in boys.

Furthermore, our research has established that the HLE acts as an independent mediator between parenting styles and dyslexia. This means that positive parenting styles create a richer HLE, which in turn reduces the risk of dyslexia. Children’s early language skills are developed through their interactions with their parents (Glascoe and Leew, 2010). More specifically, parental attitudes toward reading seem to influence the development of children’s reading skills (Niklas et al., 2020). As numerous studies have shown, the actions and characteristics of both children and parents can shape family interactions (Shalani et al., 2023). Parents’ behaviors and attitudes, along with family communications and interactions, contribute to increasing children’s reading activities and create a positive HLE. The behavior of individual family members impacts all other members, making it essential to consider the family and the overall environment when examining a child’s behavior (Setyanisa et al., 2022). Given this, interventions that focus on effective parent–child communication can be a crucial part of rehabilitation training for children with dyslexia. Additionally, the mediation analysis revealed that the HLE fully mediates the relationship between paternal parenting styles and dyslexia in children. This may reflect a more pronounced interaction between fathers’ involvement in education and the HLE setting in fostering children’s reading skills. In contrast, no such mediation pattern emerged between maternal parenting styles and dyslexia, which might suggest differences in educational strategies or influences on the formation of children’s reading habits within the family culture. Moreover, this study will enhance our understanding of the impact of parenting styles on children’s dyslexia. In general, based on the findings of the present study, improving parenting styles, enhancing family interaction, and creating a positive family reading atmosphere can be considered crucial strategies for reducing the risk of dyslexia. In summary, parenting styles can either positively or negatively influence dyslexia in children through HLE, making this the most innovative contribution of this study.

Further to our conclusions, we propose that the complicated interaction observed between parenting styles, HLE, and dyslexia reveals patterns and influences that likely extend to a broader educational context. Given the universal importance of a supportive and enriching home literacy environment, these findings prompt a reconsideration of how we approach educational support for all students, particularly those facing any form of learning challenges (Leroux et al., 2024). The critical role of parenting and the home environment, as demonstrated in our study, suggests that similar mechanisms may influence educational outcomes across various learning difficulties, not limited to dyslexia (Şahin et al., 2020). Thus, integrating these findings, we advocate for the integration of parenting and home environment considerations into broader educational strategies and support systems, especially those students facing educational challenges.

This study has several limitations that must be considered. First, it is a case–control study, which limits the ability to establish causality. However, it provides valuable insights for future cohort or intervention studies seeking to verify these findings. Secondly, this study demonstrates that parenting styles impact children’s reading ability through the home literacy environment. However, defining the specifics of a “good” home literacy environment and establishing the optimal level to prevent reading difficulties and improve reading challenges remains elusive. Thirdly, the evaluation of parenting styles was subjective and may be subject to recall bias. Fourthly, the choice of control group from a single school may introduce selection bias. While the control group was chosen through random sampling that aims to minimize bias, selecting participants from a wider range of schools could further enhance the generalizability of our findings. Future research might benefit from a broader selection to verify and enhance the generalizability of the results. Additionally, factors such as parental occupation and educational level did not achieve statistical significance in our analyses. This finding may suggest that sample size, or the measures used to assess SES were not adequately sensitive to detect these effects. Therefore, future research should consider employing more comprehensive methodologies or larger samples to fully explore a broader range of potential mediators. To strengthen the generalizability of these findings, it is recommended to conduct future studies on samples from numerous regions to assess the reproducibility of these results.

In this study, we developed a robust mediation model to explore the potential relationship between parenting styles and dyslexia in children. Our findings suggest that the HLE serves as a mediator between parenting styles and dyslexia. This study highlights the critical role of parenting styles and the HLE in the development of interventions for dyslexic children. Our study offers fresh insights into the intricate connections between parenting styles and dyslexia, and the results carry significant theoretical and practical implications. This novel mediation model, never before utilized, aids in deepening our comprehension of the mechanisms that underlie the link between parenting styles and dyslexia. Additionally, the findings can inform the creation of clinical interventions and management programs aimed at reducing dyslexia occurrences among children. In conclusion, parenting styles appear to serve as a crucial factor in shaping individual differences in HLE and, ultimately, children’s reading abilities. Given that these parenting styles vary across different family backgrounds, they represent a promising target for interventions designed to enhance the HLE and support children’s reading development.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by the Ethics Committee of Mental Health Center, Shantou University Medical College. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardians/next of kin.

WW: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. XZ: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. KW: Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. LG: Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. AH: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. ZL: Data curation, Writing – review & editing. XY: Visualization, Writing – review & editing. QG: Data curation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. YH: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.