One of the most representative and influential models in modern organizations is the full-range leadership model that Bass and Avolio (2000a,b) proposed. This model encompasses elements of transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant leadership styles (Leigh et al., 2021). This nine-dimensional model has formed the foundational basis for research on new leadership models (Antonakis et al., 2003) and has enabled a better understanding of the effects of leadership styles on employees’ extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction in organizational leadership contexts. Its core premise revolves around the idea that by inspiring employees to connect their personal purpose and life meaning with that of the organization, they achieve levels of fulfillment that exceed their own expectations. By performing their tasks with an interest beyond a mere transaction, employees put in additional efforts, consequently achieving greater efficiency and satisfaction in their results (Bass and Avolio, 2000a,b).

The design of this proposed research aims to test the full range of leadership theory and its relations with leadership effectiveness, extra effort, and satisfaction within a Latin American context. By attempting to falsify the Bass and Avolio (2000a,b) model, this study seeks to enhance the verisimilitude of the theory, aligning with Popper’s (2010) assertion that the ultimate goal of science is achieving greater truth likeness. This methodological approach, particularly in Colombia, emphasizes refutation over confirmation, reducing bias and error while strengthening the theoretical framework if it withstands falsification. This approach not only adds to global knowledge but also advances local understanding, underscoring the importance of falsificationism in scientific progress. According to Popper (2010), actively seeking to disprove a theory is a critical and necessary practice for the advancement of scientific knowledge.

This study provides several insights that demonstrate its relevance. Firstly, according to a literature review from 2019 to 2023 in Web of Science and Scopus, this is one of the few studies that utilizes structural equations to analyze the data. All of the results are significant and align with findings from other studies when examining the three leadership models and the three outcome variables. Finally, the study challenges latent multidimensional models by utilizing three second-order constructs (transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant) as emerging multidimensional models to describe three distinct leadership styles (Batista-Foguet et al., 2021). While several studies have focused on the relationship between full-range leadership and employees’ effort, efficiency, and satisfaction, we know that few studies have actually shown a positive and significant relationship between these variables. This, in addition to validating the postulates of Bass and Avolio (2000a,b), facilitates a more comprehensive understanding of leadership, particularly in Latin America, where these studies are still in their infancy. This presents an opportunity to understand leaders’ management styles and their interactions with diverse cultures, which differ from those in North America, Europe, and Asia. However, their economic exchanges with developed countries are highly interconnected. Additionally, it demonstrates the adaptability and reliability of the theory in different contexts. Similarly, it enables organizations to enhance their competitiveness in increasingly complex and challenging environments. Finally, in addition to validating the theory, it allows for consideration of its evolution, where its adaptation as a full-range model to green or sustainable organizational contexts, increasingly demanded by society, is still in its early stages. Antonakis et al. (2003) recommend confirming the full range of the leadership model and the different effects in a variety of contexts.

The purpose of this study is to thoroughly investigate if there is a positive relationship between full-range leadership and employees’ effort, efficiency, and satisfaction in a Latin American country, as suggested by the theoretical and normative models about passive-avoidant, transactional, and transformational leadership. To achieve this objective, the study primarily addresses the following question: Is there a positive relationship between full-range leadership and employees’ effort, efficiency, and satisfaction among managers who work in organizations located in Colombia?

Colombian work culture features a unique blend of hierarchical structure, interpersonal relationships, and collectivist principles that significantly influence leadership styles and organizational dynamics. The Hofstede model, widely referenced since its introduction in 1980, categorizes culture along six dimensions—power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and indulgence (Hofstede, 2011). These dimensions provide insights into the cultural forces shaping business practices in Colombia, valuable for both local and multinational firms (Poturak et al., 2020; Chun et al., 2021; The Culture Factor Group, 2023).

In Colombia, a high power distance is evident with strong respect for authority and hierarchical structures, where subordinates are unlikely to challenge leaders. This is complemented by a pronounced collectivist ethos emphasizing teamwork and loyalty over individual achievements. Despite a competitive drive, Colombians value collective affiliations and group achievements over personal gain, often prioritizing work commitments over leisure. There is also a preference for clear regulations and stability, requiring leaders to provide explicit guidance, although plans may not always be meticulously executed. Businesses generally exhibit a short-term orientation, focusing on immediate results and upholding traditional values, while a high indulgence score indicates a cultural emphasis on enjoying life, leading to work environments that prioritize positivity and social cohesion (Varela et al., 2010; Cabeza et al., 2013; Tarapuez-Chamorro et al., 2021; The Culture Factor Group, 2023).

This research aims to help contemporary organizations understand how and why this model can serve as a guiding light, illuminating the actions and behaviors of individuals who exercise leadership roles within organizations effectively, with integrity, and in a transformative manner. This, in turn, contributes positively to the sustainable growth of both the organization and the world. Researchers and employees use the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5X) to find out about leadership in a variety of settings (Bajcar and Babiak, 2022; Wang et al., 2023). The MLQ 5X includes scales for effectiveness, satisfaction, extra effort, and idealized influence, as well as constructs for laissez-faire, passive management by exception, active management by exception, contingent reward, individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence. First, it involves surveying over 500 individuals in managerial positions within organizations located in Colombia, making it one of the few studies conducted in a Latin American developing country.

This study first provides a theoretical framework on the theory of transformational leadership and full-range leadership, connecting the three leadership styles with the outcome variables (employee effort, efficiency, and satisfaction). Subsequently, the fieldwork is conducted, and the data is analyzed using structural equations. Finally, the results are discussed, and conclusions are presented.

Wright’s et al. (2012) proposed steps for estimating a component-based model as the basis for the process used to obtain the results. The process involves: (1) running the first-order model; (2) assessing reliability; (3) evaluating convergent validity; (4) assessing discriminant validity; (5) creating a new data file with the scores of the latent variables; (6) constructing the second-order factor with the latent variables as indicators; (7) running the structural model; and finally, (8) evaluating the results of the structural model.

The main objective of this study is to determine if there is a positive relationship between full-range leadership and employees’ effort, efficiency, and satisfaction which was reached through the methodology used. Based on hypothesis postulated, the following analyses can be drawn: first, the results obtained also demonstrate that both transformational and transactional leadership have a direct, significant, and positive relationship with extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction. This confirms the proposal made by Bass (1985) and Bass and Avolio (2000a,b) regarding the complementarity between both leadership constructs to achieve positive effects in organizations (Changar and Atan, 2021). According to Avolio and Bass (2004), the establishment of feedback or recognition mechanisms and the clear identification of roles and goals in transactional leadership serve as the foundation that enables their fulfillment and, as a result, have a positive, albeit moderate, relationship with effectiveness (0.18), extra effort (0.14), and satisfaction (0.17), with their impacts being quite similar.

Second, when examining the relationships between each dependent construct and transformational, transactional and passive-avoidant leadership, Transformational leadership has the greatest impact on extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction, while transactional leadership has the least. These results are consistent with the study by Martínez-Moreno et al. (2021), who found that transformational leadership has a greater impact on employees’ extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction, followed by transactional leadership. It is important to continue to enhance transformational leadership, whose leaders are considered examples of ethics and morality, to have more motivated and committed employees (Londono-Proano, 2022). In other words, it is crucial for leaders, depending on the situation, to complement transformational leadership with transactional leadership, serving as a source of inspiration for their workers and, additionally, establishing goals related to reward or punishment systems (Changar and Atan, 2021).

Third, the results also support the idea that passive-avoidant behaviors have negative effects on leadership outcomes in Colombian companies, as shown by the fact that they make leaders less effective (−0.247), less satisfied (−0.141), and less hardworking (−0.120) (Berber et al., 2019). These results are consistent with their avoidance of involvement, assuming responsibilities, and giving objectives and standards (Garzón-Lasso et al., 2021).

Fourth, the results also identify that transformational leadership has a greater impact on extra effort (0.594), satisfaction (0.458), and effectiveness (0.421) than transactional leadership. The ability of this leadership style to connect with followers’ higher-order needs explains this, which is consistent with earlier studies (Berber et al., 2019; Alhuzaim et al., 2022). Transformational leaders also have the capacity to enhance employees’ satisfaction with their job and the aspects surrounding it (Abolnasser et al., 2023). The individualized consideration dimension, which values team members’ ideas in identifying problems and coming up with solutions and describes it as intellectual stimulation, the sense of tasks and common purpose of teams described as inspirational motivation, and integrity and trust-building in leadership through idealized influence, leading followers to achieve extraordinary performance, facilitate this (Teoh et al., 2022).

In addition to justifying the hypotheses, the results of this study validate the use of the MLQ 5X in its Spanish version to measure the nine dimensions of the full range proposed by Bass and Avolio (2000a,b) in Latin America. This contributes to advancing the understanding of the model in different contexts (Antonakis et al., 2003; Becerra-Astudillo et al., 2022) and addresses the need to comprehend the effects of the three leadership styles.

In addition to the above, this research confirms the existence of second-order constructs, supporting what Batista-Foguet et al. (2021) have postulated. Along with analyzing the validity of the MLQ 5X, it examines causal relationships. According to Bass and Avolio (2000a,b), the dimensions of laissez-faire and passive management by exception make up a second-order construct known as passive-avoidant leadership. Meanwhile, active management by exception and contingent reward make up the construct called transactional leadership. Finally, the dimensions of individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, idealized influence behavior, and idealized influence attributed form the second-order construct called transformational leadership.

Although the results align with the postulates of Bass and Avolio (2000a,b), it would be prudent to conduct a replication of this study in a different Latin American country to confirm whether the data supports the validity of the theory. Additionally, some control variables, such as gender, could be incorporated in the future to verify if the results remain consistent with the theoretical postulates.

This study contributes to providing global validity to the MLQ because, while most studies have been conducted in developed countries, research in developing countries has emerged over time, with South America and Colombia being an area that lacked research in this field. Unfortunately, long-term research projects that provide a comprehensive understanding of leadership in Colombia are still lacking. “Global Studies” (1999) is perhaps the only significant source of information on Colombian culture and leadership. The research conducted on this variable is primarily a compilation of the authors’ experiences and beliefs rather than the product of quantitative research. Therefore, verifying that the three leadership styles, as perceived by Colombian executives, significantly impact the second-order constructs represents a valuable contribution to knowledge. Furthermore, it is one of the few studies, according to the literature reviewed between 2019 and 2023 in Web of Science and Scopus, that analyzes the data using structural equations.

The study is important and useful for understanding what leadership is. It gives solid evidence of the three types of leadership suggested by the full-range model: transformational, transactional, and passive-avoidant. These styles are analyzed as second-order constructs in emerging multidimensional models to describe three different leadership styles, challenging latent multidimensional models. The results conclude that there is a direct and positive correlation between transformational and transactional styles, extra effort, effectiveness, and job satisfaction. The study also suggests using adaptive leadership, in which leaders can use behaviors and parts of both transactional and transformational leadership depending on the situation, to make organizations more effective, especially in business environments that are dynamic and always changing.

On the other hand, while there is a positive correlation between transactional leadership and the variables of extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction, its impact is measured compared to transformational leadership. Therefore, the adoption of transactional leadership behaviors in leadership roles may be less effective in increasing employee satisfaction and motivation unless complemented with the adoption of transformational leadership behaviors. As for passive-avoidant leadership, its ineffectiveness with the same variables results in negative effects on employee performance and attitude. Because of these results, Latin American organizations will be able to figure out what behaviors or skills managers should look for and work on. They will focus on active behaviors that are linked to transactional styles, like setting clear goals, and transformational styles, like empathy, democracy, inspiration, coherence, transparency, and credibility can lead to more motivated and satisfied employees. However, it’s important to keep in mind that context is crucial in defining the best leadership style.

To sum up, this study effectively connects theoretical concepts to practical applications, offering a robust framework that enhances our understanding of leadership effectiveness in diverse organizational settings.

Although this study provides valuable information, it’s important to consider its limitations when generalizing the results to different contexts than where it was conducted. It would be important to extend the research to different cultural contexts to observe how the full-range model manifests and its impact in other cultures, helping multinational companies create effective leadership strategies sensitive to their context. Future research could be conducted in other Latin American contexts to verify if the results remain significant. Additionally, given the significant gender-based samples, it could be analyzed to see if this control variable has any relevant effect on the three leadership styles Given the increased concern for being green or sustainable (Abolnasser et al., 2023; Abdou et al., 2023; Suliman et al., 2023), the same study could be adapted to green scales. Finally, it would also be helpful to learn more about how leadership works in Latin America by looking at concepts that are different from transactional, transformational, and passive-avoidant leadership. These include authentic leadership, servant leadership, adaptive leadership, ethical leadership, and more.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethical approval was not required for the studies involving humans because survey directed at companies who reviewed the instrument before dissemination. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

FG-L: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Software, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JS-M: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SA-A: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CM: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.