Psychological well-being constitutes a comprehensive state encompassing emotional, cognitive, and social aspects, reflecting an individual’s mental health and life satisfaction (Ryff, 2013). Its components include emotional resilience, positive affect, self-acceptance, autonomy, and personal growth, not solely representing the absence of distress but encompassing flourishing and thriving in daily life (Keyes, 2005; Huppert, 2009). Within educational domains, psychological well-being assumes considerable importance, profoundly influencing students’ learning outcomes, social interactions, and overall academic success (Suldo and Shaffer, 2008; Huppert and So, 2013; Trudel-Fitzgerald et al., 2019).

Students experiencing heightened well-being tend to actively engage in learning, display enhanced problem-solving skills, and demonstrate greater resilience in academic challenges (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Li et al., 2019). Moreover, it contributes to a conducive learning environment, fostering a positive school climate and elevating student satisfaction (Durlak et al., 2011). Emotional regulation plays a pivotal role in psychological well-being among students, enabling effective management of emotions crucial in dealing with academic stressors and peer interactions (Brackett et al., 2011). Well-developed emotional regulation skills correlate with reduced anxiety and increased resilience in academic pressures (Brackett and Rivers, 2013).

Self-efficacy beliefs significantly contribute to students’ psychological well-being, representing confidence in their academic capabilities (Bandura, 1997). Higher self-efficacy fosters active engagement in learning tasks, persistence in the face of challenges, and a positive outlook on academic performance (Zimmerman, 2000), promoting competence and mastery in the learning process. Additionally, a sense of belonging within the educational community and supportive relationships with peers and educators exert a substantial impact on students’ psychological well-being (Goodenow, 1993; Jackman et al., 2022). Feeling connected and valued within the academic environment positively influences emotional states, motivation, and overall satisfaction with the educational experience (Anderman, 2003; Li et al., 2019).

Psychological well-being plays a pivotal role in cultivating learning environments conducive to academic achievement and holistic development (Suldo and Shaffer, 2008; Suldo et al., 2011). Higher psychological well-being enhances engagement in learning activities, showcases adaptive coping strategies, and correlates with improved academic performance (Wang and Kanungo, 2004; Suldo, 2016). Moreover, nurturing psychological well-being contributes to a positive school culture, enriching students’ overall educational journey and fostering a sense of fulfillment and personal growth (Bewick et al., 2010).

Several academic inquiries have delved into the intricacies of university students’ mental well-being and the contributory or inhibitory elements affecting their psychological health. Research conducted by Bewick et al. (2010) noted an escalation in the challenges faced by students concerning their mental well-being upon entering university compared to their pre-university phase. Specifically, stress levels were most pronounced during the initial semester but notably subsided as students progressed from the first to the subsequent semester across various academic years. Burris et al. (2009) outlined several determinants linked to the psychological well-being and distress of students. They established a positive correlation between higher psychological well-being and lower distress with traits such as optimism, health values, and religious inclinations. Conversely, spirituality and an increased number of sexual partners were associated with diminished well-being. In a different vein, Harding et al. (2019) examined the correlation between educators’ mental health and the well-being of their students. Their findings revealed a significant link between depressive symptoms exhibited by teachers and the decreased well-being and psychological distress experienced by students. They indicated that teacher mental health holds a substantive sway over student outcomes, highlighting the potential influence of teacher presenteeism and the quality of teacher-student relationships in this dynamic.

Furthermore, Kardas et al. (2019) conducted an investigation into the predictors of well-being. They emphasized gratitude, hope, optimism, and life satisfaction as pivotal factors that forecast an individual’s psychological well-being, emphasizing their fundamental role in nurturing positive mental health outcomes. Collectively, these studies underscore the multifaceted nature of elements that impact the psychological well-being of university students. These encompass a spectrum of individual traits, contextual influences, dynamics within the teacher-student relationship, and personal attitudes and viewpoints.

Peer relationships represent a critical facet of students’ experiences within educational settings, playing a profound role in socio-emotional development, academic engagement, and overall well-being (Wentzel, 2017). The influence of positive peer relationships extends beyond mere social connections, fostering a sense of belonging, support, and social integration that create an environment conducive to learning and personal growth (Wentzel, 1998, 2016). Crucially, peers serve as vital sources of social support, offering companionship, encouragement, and empathy that significantly impact students’ emotional well-being (Brown and Larson, 2009; Riese et al., 2012). The research evidence underscores that students perceiving their peer relationships positively often exhibit lower levels of stress, anxiety, and loneliness, contributing positively to their psychological well-being (Chan et al., 2016).

Moreover, peer relationships wield considerable influence on students’ academic achievement and motivation. Constructive peer interactions can stimulate learning through collaborative activities, peer tutoring, and exchanging constructive feedback (Hughes and Chen, 2011; Wentzel, 2016). The extant literature indicate that students engaged in supportive peer networks tend to showcase heightened motivation, increased academic aspirations, and improved academic performance (Wentzel and Watkins, 2002). Beyond academics, peers significantly shape students’ behaviors, attitudes, and decision-making processes. Social comparison and modeling within peer groups influence various academic behaviors like study habits, classroom engagement, and attitudes towards learning (Wentzel and Watkins, 2002; Wentzel, 2016). Additionally, peer interactions impact students’ perceptions of the school climate, teacher-student relationships, and their overall school experience (Wentzel and Caldwell, 1997).

However, despite the benefits, challenges such as peer conflict, bullying, and social exclusion can adversely affect students’ well-being and academic engagement (Rudolph, 2010). Interventions aimed at peer mediation, conflict resolution programs, and cultivating empathy have displayed potential in alleviating negative peer interactions and fostering a positive peer culture within educational institutions (Allen and Loeb, 2015). Efforts focused on peer support programs, such as peer mentoring or buddy systems, have proven effective in enhancing peer relationships and establishing a supportive school environment (DeRosier et al., 2013; Watson, 2017). These programs facilitate positive interactions, offer guidance, and promote inclusivity among students, contributing to a heightened sense of community and belonging within the school environment.

Several studies have illuminated the influential impact of peer connections on students’ psychological well-being across varied educational contexts and developmental stages. Armsden and Greenberg’s (1987) exploration of adolescent parent and peer attachment revealed a correlation between secure peer attachments and positive psychological well-being. Their findings accentuated how the quality of adolescents’ peer relationships significantly affected their emotional health and overall well-being. In a different vein, Hanson et al. (2016) delved into the influence of peer learning on psychological well-being within higher education settings. Their conclusions highlighted the positive impact of collaborative learning experiences among peers on students’ psychological well-being, underscoring the role of such environments in nurturing students’ mental health. Balluerka et al. (2016) scrutinized the determinants of adolescents’ psychological well-being, focusing on peer attachment and class emotional intelligence. Their study unveiled that robust peer attachments and higher emotional intelligence within class settings correlated with enhanced psychological well-being among adolescents, emphasizing the supportive influence of peer relationships on emotional health.

Furthermore, Buchanan and Bowen (2008) investigated the impact of peer support in conjunction with adult support on the psychological well-being of middle-school students. Their findings indicated that peer support significantly contributed to students’ overall well-being, emphasizing the pivotal role of peer relationships alongside adult support in fostering positive psychological outcomes among students. Another study by Kibret and Tareke (2017) centered on the contribution of instructor, peer, and university support in bolstering psychological well-being among university students. Their research demonstrated that peer support emerged as a significant predictor of students’ psychological well-being, spotlighting the influential role of peer relationships in the university milieu. Moreover, Oberle et al. (2010) explored the nexus between social and emotional well-being and peer relations during early adolescence. Their discoveries identified gender-specific predictors of peer acceptance, showcasing the significance of positive peer relations in fostering social and emotional well-being during this developmental stage.

In sum, these studies collectively underscore the pivotal function of peer relationships in shaping students’ psychological well-being across diverse educational levels. Positive peer relationships, characterized by attachment, support, and collaborative interaction, emerge as influential elements in nurturing students’ emotional health and overall psychological well-being during adolescence and within educational environments.

Teacher autonomy support, a cornerstone of effective pedagogy, encompasses educators’ acknowledgment and respect for students’ perspectives, choices, and self-initiation in the learning journey (Reeve and Jang, 2006; Su and Reeve, 2011). This approach aims to nurture a sense of competence, ownership, and intrinsic motivation among students, significantly influencing their motivation, engagement, and academic performance (Núñez et al., 2015; Reeve, 2016). It stands as a pivotal factor fostering students’ active involvement and enhancing their learning experiences (Guay, 2022). The practices associated with autonomy support in teaching revolve around offering students meaningful rationales, acknowledging their viewpoints, and providing opportunities for decision-making and independent problem-solving within the learning context (Patall et al., 2008; Reeve and Cheon, 2021). It is argued that that educators fostering autonomy support cultivate environments where students feel valued, competent, and motivated to participate actively in learning tasks, creating a conducive space for growth and development (Reeve, 2016; Reeve and Cheon, 2016).

The impact of autonomy-supportive teaching on students’ motivation and learning outcomes has been substantial. The extant literature underscores that exposure to autonomy-supportive teachers correlates with higher levels of intrinsic motivation, persistence, and deeper engagement in academic tasks. This support instills a sense of volition and control, leading to improved conceptual understanding and higher-quality learning outcomes (Reeve et al., 2004; Reeve and Cheon, 2016). Moreover, teacher autonomy support significantly contributes to students’ psychological well-being within educational settings (Jiang and Tanaka, 2022). It is evident that when students feel autonomy, relatedness, and competence in their learning environment, it positively influences their emotional state, school satisfaction, and overall well-being (Soenens and Vansteenkiste, 2010; Neufeld and Malin, 2020). This link between autonomy support and psychological well-being highlights its significance beyond academic achievement, emphasizing its role in nurturing students’ holistic development. However, despite its evident advantages, implementing autonomy-supportive teaching practices can present challenges. Teachers often encounter obstacles stemming from curriculum demands, standardized assessments, or traditional teaching approaches that hinder their ability to effectively provide autonomy support (Reeve and Cheon, 2021). To overcome these challenges, professional development programs focusing on enhancing teachers’ skills in fostering autonomy support are essential (Assor, 2017).

Creating autonomy-supportive environments extends beyond individual teacher practices; it requires a school-wide culture that values autonomy, collaboration, and student agency in the learning process (Deci et al., 2017; Cho et al., 2022). Collaborative efforts among teachers, administrators, and policymakers are fundamental in fostering a systemic shift towards autonomy-supportive educational environments, thereby ensuring a comprehensive and enriching learning experience for students (Conklin, 2013). Numerous studies have shed light on the pivotal influence of perceived instructor autonomy support in shaping students’ psychological well-being across diverse educational environments. Jiang and Tanaka (2022) conducted a study examining the autonomy support offered by support personnel in higher education, revealing a strong association between this support and students’ academic engagement and psychological well-being. Their results emphasized that autonomy support from various educational staff, beyond classroom teachers, significantly impacted the overall well-being of students. Neufeld and Malin (2020) delved into the perceptions of instructor autonomy support among medical students and its mediation of their motivation and psychological well-being. Their research highlighted how autonomy support significantly fostered motivation and well-being in medical students, indicating its potential to positively influence students’ psychological health in specialized academic domains.

A longitudinal investigation by Kleinkorres et al. (2023) focused on students’ well-being development during adolescence and underscored the role of perceived instructor autonomy support. Their study accentuated that students’ perceptions of autonomy support from their teachers wielded a lasting effect on their well-being over time, highlighting the enduring impact of teacher autonomy support on students’ psychological health. Collie and Martin (2017) examined teachers’ adaptability and its connection to perceived autonomy support, teachers’ well-being, and students’ numeracy achievement. Their findings suggested a positive relationship between teachers’ adaptability, perceived autonomy support, and students’ psychological well-being. It indicated that teachers fostering autonomy support positively influenced students’ well-being and academic outcomes. Moreover, Gutiérrez and Tomás (2019) explored the function of perceived support for autonomy in anticipating the academic achievement of university students. This prediction was mediated through academic self-efficacy and engagement in school activities.

Their study underscored the substantial impact of autonomy support in fostering academic self-efficacy and school engagement, indirectly contributing to students’ academic success and overall well-being.

Also, several studies have explored how perceived teacher autonomy support impacts peer relationships among students across educational settings. Zhao and Qin (2021) found that perceived autonomy support influenced students’ self-efficacy, moderated by perceived peer support, revealing a complex interaction between teacher support and peer dynamics in shaping students’ learning experiences. Ruzek et al. (2016) examined how teacher emotional support motivated students, showing that it positively impacted students’ perceptions of peer relatedness and autonomy support. This emphasized how positive teacher-student relationships foster a supportive environment, enhancing students’ perceptions of their peer relationships. Conducted research focusing on the influence of perceived autonomy support from peers, parents, and physical education instructors on the physical activity and health-related quality of life in adolescents. Their findings indicated a significant predictive relationship between perceived autonomy support from peers and both physical activity levels and health-related quality of life, highlighting the role of peer relationships influenced by perceptions of autonomy support in promoting adolescents’ well-being.

Overall, these collective studies emphasize the critical role of perceived instructor autonomy support in bolstering students’ psychological well-being across diverse educational settings. The findings suggest that when students perceive autonomy support from their educators, it positively influences their engagement, motivation, academic accomplishments, and overall psychological well-being within educational contexts.

Teacher-student relationships encompass the emotional bonds and interpersonal connections forged between educators and their students within the academic setting (Pianta et al., 2005; Roorda et al., 2017). These relationships are characterized by trust, mutual respect, and supportive interactions, holding immense significance due to their profound impact on students’ socio-emotional growth, academic engagement, and overall well-being (Rudasill et al., 2010; Longobardi et al., 2016). Research emphasizes the pivotal role of relationship quality, linking positive teacher-student connections to numerous favorable outcomes (Fabris et al., 2023). The related research has highlighted the correlation between high-quality relationships and students’ motivation, engagement in learning, and social competence (Pianta et al., 2012; Longobardi et al., 2021).

The influence of teacher-student relationships extends notably to academic achievement (Martin and Collie, 2019). A positive and supportive rapport marked by warmth and encouragement correlates strongly with higher academic success (Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004; Roorda et al., 2011). Students who perceive their teachers as caring and supportive tend to exhibit increased academic engagement, better classroom behavior, and improved performance academically (Lee, 2012; Quin, 2017). Beyond scholastic outcomes, these relationships significantly impact students’ emotional well-being, acting as a protective factor against emotional distress. Supportive teacher-student relationships contribute positively to students’ psychological well-being by reducing stress and anxiety levels (Skinner et al., 2009; Murray-Harvey, 2010; Holfve-Sabel, 2014).

The quality of teacher-student relationships is influenced by multifaceted factors encompassing both teacher and student aspects (Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004; Chan et al., 2023). Teacher-related factors like empathy, communication skills, and effective classroom management interact with student-related elements such as socio-emotional development, behavioral traits, and cultural backgrounds to shape these relationships (Buyse et al., 2008; Sun and Shi, 2022). Longitudinal studies highlight the enduring impact of early-established teacher-student connections on students’ academic and social development, underscoring the importance of continuity in fostering these positive relationships throughout their educational journey (Pianta et al., 2005). Nevertheless, challenges may arise in nurturing positive teacher-student relationships due to diverse student needs, classroom dynamics, or constraints in teacher resources (Murray and Malmgren, 2005). Nevertheless, interventions focusing on professional development, relationship-building strategies, and cultivating positive classroom environments have shown promise in enhancing these connections (MacSuga-Gage et al., 2012). Investing in teacher training programs emphasizing relationship-building skills, cultural understanding, and empathy can significantly enhance educators’ abilities to establish and maintain positive connections with their students (Bryk and Schneider, 2002; Li et al., 2022). These interventions play a crucial role in fostering positive teacher-student relationships, which in turn significantly impact students’ academic achievement, socio-emotional well-being, and long-term development within educational settings (Hagenauer et al., 2015).

The impact of teacher-student connections on students’ mental wellness within educational environments has been well-documented in numerous studies. Aldrup et al. (2018) explored the connection between student misconduct and the well-being of instructors, unveiling that the quality of teacher-student relationships acted as a mediator. Their research highlighted the potential enhancement of teacher well-being through fostering positive engagements with students, indirectly influencing student well-being. Similarly, Lin et al. (2022) examined the influence of closeness in student-teacher relationships on students’ psychological well-being, focusing on hope as a mediating element. Their findings suggested that stronger student-teacher connections fostered greater hope among students, ultimately benefiting their psychological well-being.

Poulou (2020) scrutinized students’ school adjustment concerning teachers’ need satisfaction and teacher-student relationships. The study revealed that positive relationships with teachers significantly contributed to students’ overall adjustment and well-being in the school setting. Zheng’s (2022) research underscored the significance of teacher interpersonal behavior in impacting students’ well-being. The study indicated that positive teacher interpersonal behavior mediated students’ well-being, emphasizing the role of teacher-student relationships in fostering a supportive environment for students’ psychological welfare. Moreover, Murray-Harvey (2010) investigated the influence of relationships on students’ academic performance, mental health, and general well-being. Their results reiterated the profound impact of positive relationships, highlighting that these connections not only affected academic achievements but also played a crucial role in students’ mental health and well-being. Finally, Holfve-Sabel (2014) delved into student well-being components, emphasizing learning, interaction, and relationships. These components were identified as crucial factors contributing to student well-being, underscoring the significance of pleasant teacher-student relationships in providing a supportive and enriching learning context conducive to students’ psychological welfare.

Also, some studies highlight the relationship between teacher-student dynamics and peer relationships in diverse educational contexts. Endedijk et al. (2022) conducted a meta-analysis, revealing that the quality of teacher-student relationships significantly influences peer relationships among students, emphasizing the pivotal role of teachers in shaping positive peer interactions. Uslu and Gizir (2017) investigated adolescents’ school belonging, finding that positive teacher-student relationships significantly contributed to students’ sense of belonging, indicating a strong link between these relationships and the formation of positive peer connections in schools. Zhu et al. (2022) explored resilience, teacher-student relationships, and peer dynamics. Their study highlighted that positive relationships with teachers were associated with improved peer relationships and greater resilience, aiding in alleviating mental health difficulties among students.

Taken together, these studies collectively emphasize how teacher-student relationships impact peer dynamics. Positive teacher-student connections not only benefit student well-being but also foster supportive and inclusive peer interactions within schools. They also underscore the substantial influence of teacher-student relationships on students’ psychological well-being within educational settings. Positive and supportive relationships between teachers and students emerge as pivotal factors significantly contributing to students’ overall psychological health and well-being in educational contexts.

The educational landscape of Chinese universities presents a unique context for students pursuing French language studies. With China’s growing emphasis on internationalization and cross-cultural exchange, learning French has gained increasing popularity among university students (Huang, 2003). This shift is partly driven by China’s expanding diplomatic and economic relations with Francophone countries, which have created a demand for proficiency in the French language in various professional sectors, including international business, diplomacy, and tourism (Bianco, 1988). In Chinese universities, French language programs are typically housed within the broader framework of foreign language departments or dedicated French studies departments. These programs offer a range of courses that cover language proficiency, literature, culture, translation, and applied linguistics (Zhang, 2020). The curriculum is designed to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the French language and Francophone cultures, aiming to equip them with the skills necessary for both academic and professional success (Gong et al., 2020).

Chinese universities emphasize a student-centered approach to language learning, integrating various pedagogical strategies to enhance student engagement and motivation. These strategies often include interactive classroom activities, language immersion experiences, and the use of multimedia resources (McCafferty, 2006). Additionally, many universities have established partnerships with French institutions, facilitating student exchanges, internships, and collaborative research projects (Jiang and Shen, 2019). These initiatives provide students with valuable opportunities to immerse themselves in Francophone environments, thereby enhancing their linguistic and cultural competence (Wang et al., 2013). The role of the teacher in Chinese universities is particularly significant in shaping students’ learning experiences. Teachers are expected to provide not only academic instruction but also emotional and motivational support. This dual role aligns with the principles of autonomy support, where teachers encourage students to take initiative and responsibility for their learning while providing the necessary guidance and encouragement (Gyeltshen and Gyeltshen, 2022). The quality of teacher-student relationships is thus a critical factor influencing students’ academic and psychological outcomes (Ma et al., 2018).

Peer interactions also play a crucial role in the educational experiences of Chinese students learning French. Collaborative learning activities, peer tutoring, and group projects are commonly employed to foster a supportive learning community (Pan and Yuan, 2023). These peer interactions contribute to the development of social networks that offer emotional support, enhance language practice opportunities, and promote a sense of belonging within the academic environment (Yang, 2024).

Despite the numerous advantages, students learning French in Chinese universities may face several challenges. These include high academic expectations, pressure to achieve proficiency quickly, and balancing language studies with other academic responsibilities (Wright and Zheng, 2016). Moreover, the transition from traditional rote learning methods to more interactive and student-centered approaches can be challenging for both students and educators (Li and Cutting, 2011). Overall, the educational landscape of Chinese universities provides a dynamic and supportive environment for students learning French. The interplay of teacher support, peer relationships, and institutional resources creates a fertile ground for fostering psychological well-being and academic success. Understanding this context is essential for interpreting the findings of the present study and for developing targeted interventions to further enhance the educational experiences of Chinese university students pursuing French language studies (Zhang, 2016).

Understanding the interplay between teacher-student relationships, perceived teacher autonomy support, peer relationships, and psychological well-being is pivotal in comprehending the holistic educational experiences of Chinese university students studying French. This section elucidates and supports four hypotheses examining the direct and mediated relationships between these variables, drawing upon established theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence.

The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) emphasizes that positive teacher-student relationships contribute significantly to students’ psychological well-being (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Empirical evidence in educational settings consistently supports this assertion. Aldrup et al. (2018) demonstrated that positive teacher-student relationships are linked with higher psychological well-being in students. Lin et al. (2022) reiterated this relationship within the Chinese educational context. Studies by Poulou (2020), Mohammad Hosseini et al. (2022), and Zheng (2022) also confirm that robust teacher-student relationships positively impact students’ psychological well-being across diverse educational levels and cultural settings.

Moreover, within language learning environments, Henry and Thorsen (2018) and Derakhshan et al. (2022) specifically highlight the pivotal role of supportive teacher-student relationships in fostering emotional health and engagement in learning a second language. These studies collectively reinforce the notion that positive teacher-student relationships are fundamental for enhancing the psychological well-being of students studying French in Chinese universities.

Theoretical frameworks like SDT underscore the significance of perceived autonomy support from teachers in nurturing students’ psychological well-being (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Empirical research further validates this relationship. Gutiérrez and Tomás (2019), Jiang and Tanaka (2022), and Kleinkorres et al. (2023) affirm the positive correlation between perceived teacher autonomy support and students’ psychological well-being in various educational contexts.

O'Reilly (2014) specifically within language education underscores the role of perceived autonomy support from teachers in influencing students’ motivation, engagement, and overall well-being in language learning. These findings support the assertion that perceived teacher autonomy support is directly associated with the psychological well-being of Chinese university students studying French.

Evidence from studies such as Uslu and Gizir (2017), Endedijk et al. (2022), and Zhu et al. (2022) suggests a significant impact of positive teacher-student relationships on peer relationships among students. Additionally, Buchanan and Bowen (2008), Hanson et al. (2016), and Kibret and Tareke (2017) underscore the link between positive peer relationships and students’ psychological well-being across diverse educational contexts. Therefore, it is plausible to suggest that the quality of teacher-student relationships indirectly influences students’ psychological well-being through the mediation of peer relationships, as these relationships are interlinked and mutually influential in shaping students’ overall well-being.

Similarly, empirical findings from Ruzek et al. (2016), Tilga et al. (2021), and Zhao and Qin (2021) indicate that perceived autonomy support from teachers can influence peer relationships. Further, Armsden and Greenberg (1987), Oberle et al. (2010), and Balluerka et al. (2016) highlight the significance of positive peer relationships in contributing to students’ psychological well-being. Hence, considering the reciprocal influence between perceived teacher autonomy support, peer relationship quality, and psychological well-being, it is conceivable that perceived teacher autonomy support indirectly impacts students’ psychological well-being through the mediation of peer relationship quality.

In summary, these hypotheses are firmly rooted in established theoretical frameworks such as SDT, supported by extensive empirical studies across educational contexts. They underscore the critical roles of teacher-student relationships, perceived teacher autonomy support, and peer relationships in shaping the psychological well-being of Chinese university students studying French.

The study involved 387 Chinese university students enrolled in French language courses across 12 academic institutions located in multiple provinces in China. Participants, aged between 18 and 25 years, showcased a diverse age distribution, with approximately 47% falling within the 20–22 age bracket, around 28% in the 18–19 age group, and roughly 25% aged between 23 and 25. Gender distribution within the participant pool demonstrated a balanced representation, encompassing approximately 202 female students and 185 male students, resulting in a nearly equal ratio of 52% female and 48% male participants. In terms of French language proficiency, the cohort showcased a varied range of proficiency levels: approximately 74 students (19%) identified as beginners, around 220 (57%) as intermediate learners, and roughly 93 (24%) as advanced learners. This distribution facilitated a comprehensive representation of proficiency levels among the study participants.

Data collection procedures exclusively utilized quantitative methods, employing online surveys disseminated through university communication channels and language course platforms. The survey instruments incorporated Likert scales and standardized measures to assess variables pertinent to teacher-student relationships, perceived autonomy support, peer dynamics, and psychological well-being. The six-week data collection window was designed to accommodate participants’ academic schedules, ensuring ample time for responses. Participants were approached through official university email lists, course forums, and dedicated online platforms, providing convenient access to the survey materials. Engagement in the study was voluntary, and strict adherence to ethical standards ensured that informed consent was acquired from each participant before their involvement.

Data analysis was initiated using SPSS 28.0 for preliminary descriptive statistics and correlation assessments. Subsequently, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted using AMOS 26.0 (Arbuckle, 2017) to assess construct validity and model fitness. This analysis aimed to establish the expected associations between latent constructs and observable indicators, ensuring alignment between the proposed model and the collected data. Following the CFA, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to explore the assumed relationships among latent constructs.

In evaluating model fit, several commonly used fit indices were considered, including the χ2/df ratio, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root-Mean-Square Residual (SRMR) (Hair et al., 2014). According to Hu and Bentler (1999), criteria for acceptable model fit are more stringent. Specifically, a good model fit is indicated by a χ2/df ratio close to 2, TLI and CFI values ≥0.95, RMSEA values ≤0.06, and SRMR values ≤0.08. Additionally, to ensure the reliability of indirect effects, bootstrapping analyses employing 5,000 resamples were conducted (Hayes, 2017).

Prior to conducting statistical analyses, various data pre-processing steps were undertaken to ensure dataset integrity (Field, 2013). Assessments for normality included skewness, kurtosis indices, histograms, and Q-Q plots. Variables exhibiting substantial deviations from normal distribution underwent transformations to meet assumptions required for statistical tests and mitigate potential biases stemming from non-normality (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013). Specifically, the variables measuring peer relationship quality and teacher autonomy support displayed significant positive skewness and kurtosis. Consequently, log transformations were applied to these variables to normalize their distributions. Additionally, the variable assessing psychological well-being showed slight negative skewness and underwent square root transformation for normalization.

Addressing missing data was a priority, guided by Little’s Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) test (Little, 1988), which indicated randomness in the missingness pattern (χ² = 245.17, df = 231, p = 0.234). The missing data rates for the variables were as follows: teacher-student relationship (2.1%), peer relationship quality (3.4%), teacher autonomy support (1.8%), and psychological well-being (2.6%). To handle these missing values effectively, multiple imputation techniques were applied, generating 20 imputed datasets (Graham, 2012). This approach ensured robustness in subsequent analyses and maximal retention of available information, allowing for more reliable and valid results.

Outliers underwent thorough scrutiny employing both univariate and multivariate outlier analyses (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013). Univariate outliers were identified based on z-scores and boxplots for each variable, flagging extreme values beyond ±3 standard deviations from the mean. Multivariate outliers were assessed using Mahalanobis distance (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013), targeting cases with unusual combinations of multiple variables. Detected outliers were examined for accuracy and outliers impacting data integrity were corrected or removed accordingly.

Descriptive statistics and correlations among the key constructs—teacher-student relationship, autonomy support, peer relationship, and psychological well-being—are presented in Table 1. The mean scores for teacher-student relationship, autonomy support, peer relationship, and psychological well-being were 3.46 (SD = 0.73), 3.71 (SD = 0.69), 3.93 (SD = 0.73), and 3.42 (SD = 0.88), respectively. Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha demonstrated acceptable internal consistency for each construct: teacher-student relationship (α = 0.83), autonomy support (α = 0.91), peer relationship (α = 0.89), and psychological well-being (α = 0.86).

Correlational analyses revealed significant associations among the variables. A moderately positive correlation was found between autonomy support and teacher-student relationship (r = 0.35, p < 0.01), indicating a relationship between teachers’ provision of autonomy support and the quality of their relationships with students. Additionally, both autonomy support and peer relationship exhibited significant positive correlations with each other (r = 0.45, p < 0.001), suggesting a link between students’ perceived autonomy support and the quality of their peer relationships within the educational setting.

Furthermore, correlations with psychological well-being revealed significant associations. Teacher-student relationship exhibited a moderate positive correlation with psychological well-being (r = 0.42, p < 0.001), indicating that higher levels of positive teacher-student relationships were associated with enhanced psychological well-being among language learners. Conversely, both autonomy support (r = 0.39, p < 0.01) and peer relationship (r = 0.58, p < 0.001) displayed moderate to strong positive correlations with psychological well-being, indicating that higher levels of perceived autonomy support and positive peer relationships were linked to increased psychological well-being among students.

The initial phase of analysis involved scrutinizing the measurement model using CFA to assess construct validity and model fit. The CFA aimed to verify the proposed measurement model’s adequacy by examining the associations between latent constructs and their respective observed indicators.

The measurement model exhibited satisfactory fit indices, endorsing the adequacy of the specified latent constructs. The chi-squared value for the measurement model was χ²(310) = 815.30, with a χ²/df ratio of 2.63, within the recommended threshold of 3, indicating a reasonable model fit (p < 0.001). Additionally, the TLI and CFI values were 0.92 and 0.94, respectively, surpassing the criterion of 0.90. The RMSEA was 0.067 (CI 90%: 0.058–0.076), lower than the cutoff of 0.08, suggesting a close fit to the data. Moreover, the SRMR value was 0.075, adhering to the threshold of 0.10, signifying an acceptable model fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999). The standardized factor loadings for all indicators on their respective latent constructs were statistically significant (p < 0.001) and above the recommended threshold of 0.50, ranging from 0.62 to 0.85. The constructs demonstrated discriminant validity, as the square roots of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) were higher than the inter-construct correlations, affirming that constructs shared more variance with their respective indicators than with other constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).

Table 2 showcases the AVE and CR values, fundamental indices for assessing these two types of validity. The AVE values for each construct—teacher-student relationship (0.52), autonomy support (0.63), peer relationship (0.58), and psychological well-being (0.66)—all surpassed the recommended threshold of 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). These findings indicate that more than 50% of the variance in the indicators is explained by their respective constructs, affirming convergent validity (Hair et al., 2014). The CR values for all constructs—ranging from 0.83 to 0.91—surpassed the conventional threshold of 0.70, denoting high internal consistency reliability (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). This suggests that the latent constructs reliably capture the variance of their respective indicators, supporting convergent validity (Hair et al., 2014).

Moreover, to establish divergent validity, interconstruct correlations were examined (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The off-diagonal values in Table 2 demonstrate the correlations between constructs. Notably, while significant positive correlations were found among constructs (e.g., between autonomy support and teacher-student relationship), these correlations were below the squared AVE values for each construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). For instance, the correlation between autonomy support and teacher-student relationship (r = 0.35) was lower than both constructs’ AVE squared (0.52 and 0.63, respectively), indicating support for divergent validity.

These results collectively suggest that the measurement model exhibits adequate Convergent and Divergent Validity, confirming that the indicators measure their respective constructs effectively and that each construct is distinct from the others.

Consequently, we employed SEM to explore the hypothesized connections among the latent constructs. Our scrutiny of model fit indices revealed a consistent alignment between the postulated model and the amassed data, indicating an acceptable fit with χ²(311) = 530, CFI = 0.968, TLI = 0.957, RMSEA = 0.031 [CI 95%: 0.027–0.036], SRMR = 0.035. In Figure 1, a visual representation of the hypothesized relationships among the latent constructs is presented, demonstrating the statistical significance of all path coefficients. These findings provide substantial support for the expected associations between the variables. Moreover, to assess the significance of indirect effects, we conducted bootstrapping analyses utilizing 5,000 resamples, following the methodology described by Hayes (20177). Table 3 encapsulates a concise summary of the bootstrapping outcomes, encompassing direct, indirect, and total effects within the mediation analysis.

As seen in Table 3, the direct effects revealed significant associations between the latent constructs and psychological well-being. Specifically, the teacher-student relationship exhibited a positive association with psychological well-being (β = 0.37, 95% CI [0.25, 0.47], p < 0.001), indicating that a stronger teacher-student relationship corresponded to higher levels of well-being among students. Similarly, autonomy support displayed a positive relationship with well-being (β = 0.28, 95% CI [0.18, 0.40], p < 0.001), as did peer relationship (β = 0.47, 95% CI [0.38, 0.56], p < 0.001). These findings suggest that greater autonomy support and positive peer relationships contribute significantly to students’ psychological well-being.

The indirect effects, delineating the mediated pathways, also exhibited noteworthy associations. The indirect path from teacher-student relationship to well-being through peer relationship displayed a significant positive relationship (β = 0.20, 95% CI [0.12, 0.28], p < 0.001). Similarly, the indirect path from autonomy support to well-being via peer relationship indicated a significant positive relationship (β = 0.18, 95% CI [0.09, 0.25], p < 0.001). These outcomes imply that both teacher-student relationship and autonomy support influence students’ well-being partially through the mediation of positive peer relationships.

When considering the total effects, encompassing both direct and indirect pathways, substantial associations were observed. The cumulative effect of teacher-student relationship on well-being (total effect: β = 0.57, 95% CI [0.45, 0.67], p < 0.001) and autonomy support on well-being (total effect: β = 0.46, 95% CI [0.35, 0.57], p < 0.001) remained significantly positive. These results highlight the considerable impact of teacher-student relationship and autonomy support on students’ psychological well-being, combining both direct and mediated influences.