The COVID-19 pandemic has affected all fields in society. Although the pandemic poses a universal hazard to all occupational categories, it is possible that the number of stressors in certain classes is substantially higher and more challenging, as is the case of the teaching profession. In most countries around the world, from kindergarten to the doctoral level, there have been closures of schools and higher education institutions and cessation of face-to-face education. In fact, the COVID-19 pandemic “generated the largest disturbance of education systems in history” (De Giusti, 2020). This unprecedented situation has given rise to the development of “emergency remote teaching” (Hodges et al., 2020). Teachers did not have enough time to adequately prepare for the challenges presented by the abrupt transition to teleworking; in a relatively short period of time, the whole of the academic community began teaching in front of a computer screen, without essential training, resources, and digital skills to face these demands (De Giusti, 2020; Gatti et al., 2020; Hodges et al., 2020).

In Portugal, like in many countries, prior to COVID-19 lockdown, “the vast majority of courses currently on offer were pedagogically designed to be delivered face-to-face” (Gatti et al., 2020). Between March and May, the instruction was 100% virtual. In the final of May 2020, and with the easing of restriction measures, some Portuguese higher education institutions have decided to keep classes running online only. In other cases, lecturers had to adapt to new measures, namely hybrid education (some students attend the class in person, whilst others join virtually remotely). New work situations have arisen due to the need to implement very restrictive protocols to ensure that the virus does not spread: ensuring physical distance, ensuring the cleanliness and disinfection of the classrooms, responding to situations where students appeared ill, etc. In addition, teachers and students had to deal with the fear of possible infection. This atypical scenario created significant challenges, which may have caused multiple problems such as stress, depressive symptoms and sleep problems (Rana et al., 2020; Restubog et al., 2020). This new situation may have increased the number of work-related tasks previously identified in academic field research. According to previous research, work overload, the homework interface, and the need to increase scientific productivity are the main factors contributing to lecturers’ stress (Gomes et al., 2013). A variety of stressful situations that can trigger emotional exhaustion and reduced job satisfaction have been identified by a review of burnout in lecturers: work pressure, conflicts at work, large classes, learning difficulties, and students’ behaviours (Fiorilli et al., 2015). In addition to these usual stressors, the pandemic has created new demands for teachers. Lectures faced a set of challenges, particularly, in preparation of the materials, in developing and delivering the contents, performing the lesson, following students’ growth, and integrating other software’s into one learning platform. Alongside increased work intensity, the pandemic is a stressful event that involves uncertainty and unpredictability (Gatti et al., 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). This scenario, when not handled or alleviated, may lead to burnout (Vazi et al., 2013) a “state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion that results from long-term involvement in work situations that are emotionally demanding” (Schaufeli and Greenglass, 2001).

Teachers had to suddenly transition to digital education. This entailed the forced acquisition of a new teaching method, which, overall, became a source of stress for a significant portion of educators. This situation amongst education professionals carries consequences for students. Students with exhausted teachers tend to exhibit reduced motivation for schoolwork. Furthermore, other research indicates that the psychological state of teachers impacts the academic outcomes of children and adolescents, often resulting in lower academic achievements and greater difficulties in achieving success in school. Poor working conditions were found to be predictors of emotional exhaustion and low personal accomplishment (Fernández-Martínez et al., 2017).

Reports on burnout levels amongst higher education teachers seem to be similar to those reported amongst health-care workers (Watts and Robertson, 2011). In a systematic review performed by Khan (2019) assessing the origins and adverse consequences of burnout, it was found that university academicians were exposed to personal and environmental demands (Khan, 2019). From family relationships, expectations, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions, personality, and personal lifestyle habits (such as sleeping habits), to environmental demands related to work, professional roles, time pressures, relationships and lack of resources, these professionals appear to be subject to several demands. Nevertheless, psychological resilience (Wagnild and Young, 1993; Serrão et al., 2021) and satisfaction with life have been revealed as protective variables, and hence not all individuals exposed to the aforementioned demands, develop stress, anxiety, depression or burnout (Wagnild and Young, 1993; Melillo and Suarez Ojeda, 2005). According to a recent cross-sectional quantitative study on 831 lecturers and professors of a Mexican public university, cynicism and emotional exhaustion exhibited the strongest correlation with accomplishment in teaching, right after resources availability (García-Rivera et al., 2022). Psychological resilience refers to the human ability to cope with high-risk circumstances and regain socio-emotional balance, whilst resilience fosters individual regulation moderating the adverse effects of stress (Wagnild and Young, 1993; Serrão et al., 2021). Subjective well-being, like psychological resilience, derives from positive psychology. Two components underly well-being: an emotional component (hedonic well-being; subjective emotions such as the experience of pleasure and happiness) and a cognitive component (eudaimonic well-being; ones’ motivation to achieve goals that promotes positive feelings) (Diener et al., 1985; Ryff, 1989; Culbertson et al., 2010). This last category is termed “life satisfaction” and relates to the rational judgement and evaluation that individuals make about the quality of their lives, including expectations, comparisons to others, and other cultural traits (Diener et al., 1985).

As mental resilience facilitates the process of coping with highly stressful situations (Campbell-Sills and Stein, 2007), it can potentially mitigate the symptoms of burnout. These symptoms may include fatigue, difficulty in managing one’s emotions, and a sense of detachment or aloofness in interpersonal relationships. Conversely, mental resilience can bolster feelings of professional achievement and the ability to handle job demands (Bakker and Demerouti, 2007).

Prior research has indicated that women are more susceptible to challenges related to emotional well-being during periods of confinement. This vulnerability is partly attributed to their pre-existing lower levels of mental health (Lacomba-Trejo et al., 2022). Additionally, women often face the added burden of balancing their professional responsibilities with family duties, including caring for children and dependents (Tugend, 2020). Conversely, shorter sleep duration and lower sleep quality are associated with increases in the levels of perceived stress (Kim et al., 2019; Alotaibi et al., 2020). These relationships have also been evidenced during the COVID-19 pandemic.

According to a study of 103 educators in South Africa, as levels of disengagement and exhaustion decreased, levels of subjective well-being increased, thus suggesting that subjective well-being may preclude experiences of exhaustion and disengagement amongst educators (Hansen et al., 2015).

However, little research has been conducted in higher education compared to other professions (Watts and Robertson, 2011). Besides, another critical matter is the scarce attention paid to identify protective variables against burnout. Furthermore, solutions to mitigate burnout amongst lecturers should explore factors associated with positive psychology and well-being, which can be used as personal resources against this phenomenon. By developing their personal resources, academicians can develop adaptive strategies to minimise the adverse effects of work demands (Ghorpade et al., 2011). Psychological resilience and satisfaction with life, which are reported to potentially aid during times of distress (Vazi et al., 2013), may protect workers from burnout and chronic stress. Identifying protective variables against burnout is important when designing health promotion programmes for lecturers. For example, a recent study has attained satisfying results in a sample of 80 Nigerian university history lecturers with high burnout levels, using online psychological interventions targeting job burnout reduction (Eseadi et al., 2023) Moreover, different disruptions are expected in the future, namely new waves and new diseases affecting the whole world, it is important to study whether there are variables positively associated with teacher achievement in these challenge times. The ability to be resilient has proven indispensable during confinement. More resilient individuals have reported enhanced subjective well-being and life satisfaction, as indicated by Macintyre et al. (2020). Additionally, they have exhibited higher levels of emotional functioning (Lacomba-Trejo et al., 2022).

A better understanding of the potential risk for burnout outcomes amongst lectures is crucial for comprehending the impact of COVID-19 during the period of confinement. The aim of this study is to describe burnout amongst lecturers working in Portugal and to analyse potential determinants of this burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic and to investigate how concerns related to COVID-19, emotional balance, life satisfaction, and resilience may mediate the emotional impact. Burnout amongst lectures is very important to discuss, as it has profound implications for the quality of education, the mental health of teachers and the general well-being of society. It is essential to understand and address these issues to promote a healthy and effective academic environment, especially during times of significant change such as the pandemic.

COVID-19 has severely disrupted teaching, learning, research and mobility. The pandemic has brought huge challenges to the academic community (Gatti et al., 2020). This global scenario has given rise to the development of emergency remote teaching (Hodges et al., 2020) as a strategy to avoid the spread of the virus. Emergency remote teaching (Hodges et al., 2020) has added to the stresses and workloads experienced by higher education teachers who were already under pressure to balance teaching, research and service obligations whilst maintaining a work-life balance (Houston et al., 2006; Houlden and Veletsianos, 2020). Therefore, the main objective of this study was to describe burnout amongst lecturers and to analyse potential determinants of this phenomenon during the COVID-19 pandemic. To the best of our knowledge, this study is one of the first to assess the burnout faced by lecturers working in Portugal throughout the pandemic.

The results of this study indicate that 49.5% of lecturers experienced high levels of personal burnout, 36.6% experienced work-related burnout and 10.9% experienced student-related burnout. The prevalence of burnout observed in this study was higher than in previous studies conducted in Portugal, finding that 6.3 to 34.8% of lecturers could have symptoms characteristic of burnout (Houlden and Veletsianos, 2020). In a study by Oliveira (2011), 14.8% of respondents showed signs of emotional exhaustion, 9% had signs and symptoms of lack of professional fulfilment and 1.1% exhibited depersonalisation.

These data are not surprising, given that this professional field is considered to be very demanding (Vazi et al., 2013; Fiorilli et al., 2015). In recent years, national and international competitiveness in academia has been increasing. Teachers must juggle organisational activities, research activities, scientific productivity and pressure to publish with pedagogical activities (Gomes et al., 2013). Compounding this, the new context of emergency remote teaching has implied an ongoing adaptation process and created other sources of stress, related with teaching and learning remotely.

Our results highlight the multidimensionality of burnout syndrome. Indeed, each of the three burnout dimensions was linked with a particular set of covariates.

We found that gender significantly contributed to the outcomes. Our findings suggest that female gender is associated with higher levels of personal burnout and work-related burnout, which is in line with previous research developed in European or American contexts (Tümkaya, 2007; Ghorpade et al., 2011; Redondo-Flórez et al., 2020). Similarly Oliveira (2011) and Mota-Cardoso et al. (2002) concluded that Portuguese female university teachers had significantly higher values of emotional exhaustion when compared to men. Some studies point out that the difficulties experienced in reconciling multiple roles continue to be more constant and intense for women. In fact, a recent study conducted during October 2020 of 1,122 American teachers (Tugend, 2020), found that 74% of women feel their work-life balance has deteriorated compared to 63% of men and 82% of women teachers said their workload has increased compared to 70% of men. Indeed, whilst work-related responsibilities seem to be shared by men and women, the same does not happen in the family context, given that domestic demands and responsibilities (housekeeping and caregiver responsibilities) continue to fall primarily upon women (Matias et al., 2011). This reality lays some obstacles to a good balance between the two domains of life for both genders, since the choice between one domain in the other may generate negative consequences for the individuals’ health and well-being, namely the development of psychosocial risks, such as burnout, and decreased job satisfaction. In the Portuguese context, this gender inequality in the sharing of domestic responsibilities is changing, to the extent that men are gradually beginning to more actively participate in this role that was once exclusively attributed to women (Goncalves et al., 2018). Although a change in attitudes is beginning to occur, the female gender continues to assume greater responsibility and concern domestic matters, resulting in difficulty reconciling multiple roles (i.e., mother, wife, daughter, caregiver and housewife) (Watts, 2009).

Our results show that lecturers with children aged 12 and under were more likely to experience personal burnout than lectures without children or children aged 12 or older. In the same line of research, another study (Duarte et al., 2020) found similar results amongst healthcare workers. In addition to the fact that teachers work at a distance, their children are also being taught in the same format, implying additional work for parents. Non-school aged children, meanwhile require other forms of care from their parents.

The lockdown in response to COVID-19 resulted in lifestyle changes that affected sleep quality (Romero-Blanco et al., 2020). Our findings show that changes in sleep patterns are associated with higher levels of personal and work-related burnout and sleep duration was associated with personal burnout. Lecturers who slept more than 8 h had lower levels of personal burnout compared to those who slept less than 6 h. Sleep is restorative for daily functioning, and both the quality and quantity of sleep affect the individual’s ability to cope with emotional events (Vandekerckhove and Cluydts, 2010). In turn, sleep deprivation triggers negative emotional responsiveness and decreases the effect of positive emotions (Vandekerckhove and Cluydts, 2010). Practises and behaviours, such as sleep hygiene, are important for promoting consistent and uninterrupted sleep (Suni, 2022). Previous research has found that the use of a sunrise alarm clock in combination with the removal of electronic devices at bedtime was effective in improving sleep quality and reducing burnout scores (Brubaker et al., 2020). Another study (Gupta et al., 2020) showed that the COVID-19 lockdown was linked to changes in sleep timing and in the quantity and quality of night sleep.

Additionally, the risk variables associated with personal and work-related burnout are depression and stress symptoms. Although burnout and stress are different, they are closely related and generally linked to identical work-based psychosocial factors (Pines and Keinan, 2005; Vazi et al., 2013). Stress was defined as a tendency to overreact to a stressful event, with symptoms of tension and irritability, and burnout was defined as the psychological strain that results from exposure to stressful situations (Maslach and Jackson, 1981; Ghorpade et al., 2011).

The need to adapt to an unprecedented teaching model for the majority (in our sample, 77.9% had no previous experience of distance learning), technical problems with the use of online platforms, difficulties in social interaction, difficulty in following students and, in effect, professional life began to count all the hours of the day, making it not easy to separate professional life and family life. The use of teaching platforms by teachers was a source of concern as a very large percentage had never been used. Therefore, training may be the most appropriate solution, as this new learning environment requires adaptation.

As suggested in the literature on occupational burnout, personal characteristics can influence burnout levels and buffer negative aspects of the work environment (Sabagh et al., 2018). This study shows that personal characteristics such as resilience and life satisfaction (subjective well-being) predicted lower levels of work-related and student-related burnout.

Psychological resilience and life satisfaction were shown to be protective variables against burnout. In this sense, higher education institutions must develop and provide health programmes to promote and sustain resilience amongst lecturers. Such health programmes, like mindfulness-based interventions (MBI) may improve these protective factors, and safeguard teachers against occupational stress and burnout (Lomas et al., 2017). Previous studies (Paquette and Rieg, 2016; Hwang et al., 2017) report that these psychoeducational programmes are effective in reducing levels of burnout, anxiety, stress, depression and also in promoting teachers’ well-being. Thus, including MBI in teacher education must be considered in order to help maintain good psychological health amongst teachers (Jennings et al., 2017; Ruijgrok-Lupton et al., 2018). In addition, this type of mental training also seems to be an asset for teachers in the performance of their duties, as it promotes adaptive emotional regulation, a sense of self-efficacy and subjective well-being (Jennings and Greenberg, 2009; Emerson et al., 2017).

The results of this study indicate that high levels of personal burnout are experienced by 50% of lecturers, 37% experienced work-related burnout and 11% experienced student-related burnout. Each of the three burnout dimensions was linked with a particular set of covariates, which corroborates the multidimensionality of the burnout syndrome. Psychological resilience and life satisfaction were shown to be protective variables against burnout. In this sense, higher education institutions need to develop and provide health programs which promote and sustain resilience in lecturers. By observing the link between each dimension of burnout and specific sets of covariates, it is possible to identify risk factors that may predispose lecturers to burnout. This understanding is essential for developing effective intervention strategies. It is important to support teachers in developing skills to face unexpected challenges and maintain their mental health in situations of prolonged stress. Educational institutions and managers play a fundamental role in creating working environments that promote the resilience and mental health of teachers. Higher education institutions must recognize the impact of the work environment and organizational culture on faculty mental health and take proactive measures to improve this environment. These institutions can implement support strategies such as educational technology training, professional development programmes, emotional support resources, and workload flexibility. It is essential to consider teachers’ concerns to ensure they can provide quality education to students, even in emergency remote learning situations.

On the other hand, psychoeducational programmes like mindfulness-based interventions may improve these protective factors, and safeguard teachers against occupational stress and burnout.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by Ethics Committee of the São João Hospital Center (98/2020, on 29 May, 2020). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The ethics committee/institutional review board waived the requirement of written informed consent for participation from the participants or the participants' legal guardians/next of kin because all participants gave informed consent online in compliance with guidelines for clinical research.

LC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. CS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AR: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SM: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. JS: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. TA-L: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. CM: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. AT: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. ID: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing.