Identity formation occurs in contexts that are affected by numerous elements. The relationships between language, culture, and identity should be studied in a manner that takes into account the complexities of defining long immersions and delineating boundaries in an infinite intercultural context. Schecter (2014) reviewed three perspectives of researching identity and language: “social anthropology, sociocultural, and participation/relational.” These approaches examine how social boundaries are upheld, how individuals and groups achieve self-sufficiency and success, and how individuals contextualize identities within their actions, speech, and social connections. Progression from rudimentary cultural identification to intercultural identification is a significant avenue for fostering cross-cultural communicative proficiency. Kim’s (2001) proposition of cross-cultural identity offers a valuable framework for constructing one’s cultural self-identity. Kim’s (2001) concept of cross-cultural identity is not limited to a dichotomous approach that incorporates local and foreign cultures. Instead, it encompasses an identity through which one perceives oneself as a global citizen (Sussman, 2000). This viewpoint allows a broader and more accepting understanding of one’s own identity and foreign cultures (Kim, 2017b,c).

From an eco-linguistic perspective, an individual’s cultural identity “emerges” from dynamic cultural interactions. Stibbe (2021) applied “ecological identity” to explain that the identity issue in eco-linguistics is beyond the boundaries of cultures because “ecological identity” is “a sense of belonging to a group which includes not only humans but also others from the wider community of life.” The degree to which a specific community employs a separate array of resources (modes) in its day-to-day social interactions is positively correlated with the level of proficiency attained by its constituents. Furthermore, as Norton and De Costa (2018) stated, the scale research approach to identity investigates how language learners’ backgrounds influence their commitment to language acquisition. To better understand the social reality that has significant effect on language acquisition, considering both temporal and spatial scales is helpful. We use a multi-scalar approach to consider different levels of cultural identity and select English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners as the research participants because they can provide valuable insights into how cultural differences are navigated when learning a foreign language. Kozaki and Ross (2011) discussed various cases of EFL learners in Japan and Korea and demonstrated that foreign and native languages frequently influence cultural identity conflicts. This indicates that from the perspective of eco-linguistics, cultural identity encompasses the nature of blending timescales, spaces, experiences, and cognition processes. If the story of identity is examined by its unique rather than universal features, the elements that shape identity should be explored through dynamic intercultural interactions.

Cultural identity is not isolated from time and space as it is the culture itself. To avoid investigating cultures and languages in essentialist or structuralist manners, the “super-diversity” proposed by Steffensen and Kramsch (2017) and “diversities” proposed by Dervin (2016) are suitable frameworks for analyzing cultural identity. This study aims to examine the attributes of personal cultural identity and the variables that impact their intricacy through the lens of eco-linguistics. Identity construction is a process of self-reflection, adaptation, and correct comprehension of cultural identity security. Successful cross-cultural communication requires individuals to maintain optimal levels of cultural identity security by managing their anxiety and uncertainty. Therefore, to closely study cultural identities, the participants in the qualitative part of this research were selected using Gudykunst’s (1993, 1995, 1998, 2005) anxiety/uncertainty management theory (AUM) and Ting-Toomey’s (2015, 2017) identity negotiation theory. This research focuses on EFL learners who exhibit an ideal level of cultural identity anxiety, and adopts a multi-scale approach from an eco-linguistic perspective to analyze the differentiation and diversity of cultural identity. This study examines the characteristics of their cultural identity and investigates the factors that influence it at the macro-, meso-, exo-, and micro- levels. By exploring the dynamic map of individual cultural identity before and after the COVID-19 pandemic from an eco-linguistic perspective, this study attempts to provide a comprehensive understanding of EFL learners’ cultural identity development paths.

This study comprises two studies, applying both qualitative and quantitative methods. In the qualitative part of both studies, the textual data are examined using NVivo, the qualitative part of Study 1 with NVivo 12.0, and that of Study 2 with NVivo 20.0. In the quantitative part, both Studies 1 and 2 adopt a questionnaire survey. Questionnaire 1 in Study 1 applies Haiyan’s (2014) CAQ. The initial copies of CAQ were distributed to 287 students to ensure credibility. The questionnaire dimensions were then slightly readjusted based on students’ language learning levels. The final version of Questionnaire 1 scored on a 5-point Likert scale with 12 items that include the attitudes toward the food, language, wedding style, festival, and opera in Western cultures. Besides, based on AUM theory and Ting-Toomey’s identity negotiation theory, Questionnaire 2 in Study 2 was an expanded version of Questionnaire 1 with 15 items. The three more items are about attitudes toward critical thinking, creativity, and the Western educational system, also scored on a 5-point Likert scale.

Cultural identity is affected by one’s ecosystem, which includes both—one’s internal and external surroundings. According to Dervin (2016), the differences between “cultures” should not be exclusively ascribed to the different cultures themselves. He proposed that “diversity needs to become diversities” and stated that specific individuals should be respected for their interculturality rather than their original, limited, and pre-conceived cultural labels. Eco-linguistics provides a unique angle from which individuals’ cultural identities can be observed as emerging from the ecosystem instead of attributable to any particular surroundings (Kramsch and Vork Steffensen, 2008). Kramsch and Vork Steffensen (2008) stated that Norton’s view of identity has been criticized for being too structuralistic in language acquisition, and that an ecologically oriented approach to language education should relinquish the insistence on standardization within the realm of language instruction. Guided by the ecological research paradigm, our study delves into the impact of individual differences on cultural identity at the macro-, meso-, exo-, and micro-levels. As Finke (2017) stated, “All cultures are ecosystems of the mind […]. The cultural diversity of psychological ecosystem is the decisive orienting frame for all linguistics and even more of any kind of eco-linguistics.” The research findings of Studies 1 and 2 illustrate that the factors affecting cultural identity originated from participants’ attitudes toward their surroundings, which can be investigated from an objective, individualized, and specific perspective.

The multilayer approaches are proven to be effective for comprehending ecological perspectives. Macro-, meso-, exo- and micro-level factors of social situations have been explored by some scholars (Dorjee et al., 2013; Uryu et al., 2014; Dorjee and Ting-Toomey, 2020), but these four levels are seldom fully covered in these studies. As demonstrated in the research findings, Study 1 covers three levels of research: macro, meso, and micro; Study 2 covers all four levels. The results of Study 1 showed that an individual’s cultural identity was mainly shaped by macro-, meso-, and micro-level factors of Chinese and Western cultures in the period before the COVID-19 pandemic. In Study 1, most participants were involved in macro-level factors, but the elements differed depending on the culture. First, in Chinese macro-level factors, the elements primarily focused on traditional culture and virtues, ancient historical civilization, and other related facets. At the Western macro-level, these factors were characterized mainly by the Western education system, modern civilization, industrial products, and economic development. Second, meso-level factors focused primarily on the interaction between educators, students, and the student’s families. The participants’ cultural identifications for Chinese cultures were influenced by various factors originating from the traditional concepts of family and institution, including traditional relationship modes such as “filial piety” and “respecting teachers and valuing education.” Cultural identifications for Western cultures mainly focused on Western standards of parent–child and teacher-student relationships. Besides, the Western-style education mode played a significant role in shaping participants’ identities. Third, the micro-level factors that affected cultural identity can be attributed to the participants’ interpersonal communication with their relatives and friends. In Chinese culture, these factors are generally characterized by modest and reserved personality traits and implicit emotional expressions. Conversely, for the Western cultures part, the factors that affect participants’ cultural identity are primarily associated with personal lifestyle choices, such as promoting individuality, respecting privacy, and maintaining an independent self in interpersonal communication.

The eco-linguistic perspective for analyzing individuals’ surrounding contexts provides an angle for changing the static view of cultural identity. Study 2 shows that cultural identity construction after the COVID-19 pandemic was dramatically different from that before, as evidenced by the results from Study 1. Although traditional cultural elements are still the most influential macro-level factors, Chinese national identity was a new addition after the pandemic in Study 2. National identity has recently been examined as an isolated subject in some studies (Liu and Chang, 2021; Malhotra and Ramalingam, 2022; Salmon-Letelier, 2022; Wood, 2022; Komisarof et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023; Monscheuer, 2023; Rentschler et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2023), though these studies mainly focused on the elements that shape national identity. However, in the research findings from Study 2, national identity was a macro-level factor that was strengthened after the COVID-19 pandemic. This indicates that the identification of a nation is not isolated and can be shifted by actual social incidents in the construction of a changeable cultural identity. Part of the Chinese national identity is usually grounded in the principles of Confucianism, which encompass collectivism and the pursuit of social harmony. Based on the findings of Study 2, the occurrence of COVID-19 reinforces some Confucian values, such as being united and socially responsible, respecting authority, and prioritizing the welfare of the community. For instance, most participants perceived the individual’s adherence to regulations as a viable resolution to confront this global crisis instead of as a restriction on freedom. Therefore, the appearance of national identity elements in the macro-level factors of Study 2 can be attributed to the unpredictable context of the pandemic.

The concept of holism is important in eco-linguistics, as it emphasizes the interconnectedness, interdependence, and interactional nature of language, while valuing diversity and adopting a descriptive approach (Kramsch and Vork Steffensen, 2008). As Kramsch and Vork Steffensen (2008) state, “eco-linguistic emphasis on contextuality and open systems that the researcher sees him/herself as participant, i.e., as related to the object system under investigation.” Thus, in the analysis of meso- level factors, a holistic approach is necessary when comparing Chinese and Western cultures. It is crucial to maintain a respectful and impartial stance while analyzing different cultures to understand their diversity and complexity. First, Chinese culture emphasizes filial piety and family obligations, while Western cultures prioritize individualism and personal goals. However, it is important to note that the attitudes toward the family concept of different cultures can vary within the broader sociocultural context. COVID-19 challenged our notion of the family and emphasized the significance of support within the family unit. The results of Study 1 show that the Western-style family relationship was more popular among the participants, indicating a preference for the free, relaxed, and independent family atmosphere in Western cultures. On the other hand, the findings of Study 2 show that the participants identified more with Chinese family concepts after COVID-19.

From an eco-linguistic perspective, studying the interplay between identity dynamics and social contexts provides insight into the impact of super-diversity on an individual’s motivation to acquire knowledge (Steffensen and Kramsch, 2017). This can be seen in the exo-level factors of the results in Study 2. The exo-level factors are newly found in Study 2 after COVID-19 and did not appear in the results of Study 1. During the pandemic, insights concerning critical thinking, creativity, and popular culture emerged as exo-level factors affecting the students’ cultural identity. First, due to COVID-19, ensuring accurate and reliable information has become even more crucial. To fight against the spread of misinformation during a pandemic, fact-checking and source verification have become more significant than ever. To some extent, the COVID-19 pandemic has motivated students to prioritize critical thinking. Second, COVID-19 created many challenges for college students. Although the pandemic has provided more leisure time for students, COVID-19 limited their resources for personal collaboration while increasing their reliance on technology. This shift may influence students’ attitudes toward creativity and their preferred mediums of expression. As demonstrated in the findings of Study 2, Western entertainment and pop culture emerged as notable exo-level factors during COVID-19. This has been particularly evident in the success and influence of Marvel films, which have enjoyed considerable attention and popularity during these challenging times. Through the eco-linguistic analysis, the exo-level factors reveal that the pandemic has a profound impact on individuals’ motivation for critical thinking, creativity, and cultural preferences.

Besides, eco-linguistics can contribute to understanding how language is used to discuss and address the crisis. This perspective allows a holistic analysis that considers various factors and dimensions of cultural identity. By analyzing the participants’ comments on social incidents, eco-linguistics provides a comprehensive approach to understanding the relationship between language, culture, and the environment. The impact of COVID-19 extends far beyond the realm of public health, significantly influencing our society on a global scale. This global pandemic has also inevitably highlighted the pre-existing inequalities and tensions within diverse cultures, bringing them to our attention and enhancing our reexamination of whether the conflicts are from cultural differences or stereotypes. This can be ascribed to micro-level factors, such as the sense of community and personal relationships, in the findings of this research. Based on the micro-level factors in the findings of Studies 1 and 2, it is evident that the participants’ interpretations of social incidents are varied. In Study 1, the micro-level factors made up the smallest part, mainly regarding daily behavior, such as “expressing emotions directly” in Western culture and “beating around the bush” in Chinese culture. Nonetheless, in Study 2, analysis of comments on behavior regarding COVID-19 yields new data which reveal that some typical Western traits, such as open-mindedness, optimism, and calmness, are highly appreciated by participants. Additionally, China exhibited remarkable fortitude and efficacy in navigating the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic. In the findings of Study 2, Chinese citizens demonstrated exceptional personal attributes, including rationality, composure, and adaptability, that facilitate their handling of crises. The findings of Study 2 show that after the pandemic, the micro-level factors of cultural identity also changed. Throughout Studies 1 and 2, we embraced Stibbe’s (2021) view of dynamic cultural identity, which considers identity “an evolving story.” This indicates that understanding social incidents is also a process of building self-awareness. Thus, cultural identity is actively gained from the surrounding environment rather than constituting a passive cultural label.

In addition, language acquisition in identity construction can be conceptualized as the cognitive process of comprehending one’s sense of self-identity (Torop, 2014). EFL learners typically come from diverse cultural backgrounds. This research aims to examine the factors influencing EFL learning for non-native speakers in a globalized context. The samples were selected based on the results of the CAQ. All of them were supposed to be able to negotiate between the two cultures because their questionnaire scores were at the ideal range of cultural anxiety. The research findings reveal that an individual’s cultural identification is as flexible as the culture itself. Cultural identity is not isolated from any surroundings of individuals, even though the information from the internet, movie, or television, regardless of the accuracy of the information presented. Pidduck et al. (2022) selected participants from among employees with experience on international business trips and suggested that intercultural experience strengthens the multicultural identity that represents the ability to handle cultural differences. However, the participants of Studies 1 and 2 were freshmen from an arts college, and few had experienced learning abroad. Still, they had perspectives about Chinese and Western cultures.

Furthermore, motivation is a primary factor that affects second language acquisition (Norton, 1995; Darvin and Norton, 2015). However, Darvin and Norton (2021) further proposed that investment is not the ultimate purpose of motivation, and the “complexity of identity and the interplay of different desires shape learners’ investments in different situations.” According to Darvin and Norton (2021), identity can be viewed as “not only person-in-context but also history-in-person.” Based on this theory, each individual possesses distinct perspectives influenced by diverse elements that mold their comprehension of their environment, which certainly affects their language learning process. Torop (2014) expanded the boundaries of language to “primary modeling system” and “secondary modeling systems.” The secondary modeling system includes literatures, arts, and medias, which can function as meta-linguistic systems influencing an individual’s existence. These metalanguages help individuals recognize their connections to the world and construct distinct identities. Moreover, learners from Chinese cultural backgrounds may face unique challenges in EFL learning because of cultural differences. Chinese culture is characterized by a long history, traditional virtues, and a strong emphasis on family and teacher-student relationships. These factors shape Chinese learners’ cultural identities and impact their approaches to English learning. Traditional Chinese culture places a high value on education and the role of teachers, which can influence how Chinese learners view their EFL instructors. The perspective of eco-linguistics provides us with the angle to comprehend how individuals construct their cultural identity and struggle to comprehend cultural differences.

EFL learners usually face challenges created by cultural differences. Learners’ initial language and cultural background are additional variables that affect their acquisition of EFL. With these abundant and dynamic language system elements, this study explores the complexity of individuals’ cultural identities. The limitations of this study can be divided into two streams: the participants and the lack of longitudinal research. First, in the qualitative part of the research, to avoid the participants’ psychological bias, the participants were selected based on the AUM and identity negotiation theory, and they are supposed to communicate competently in an intercultural context. Future studies should explore other methods for selecting participants in eco-linguistics research by considering their language learning ability, intercultural communicative competence, and other scales in psychology and sociology. Secondly, Study 2 should have conducted longitudinal research among the same group of participants. However, since the participants in Study 1 had already graduated from college when conducting Study 2, Study 1 and Study 2 had to choose different groups of research participants. The longitudinal research on cultural identities would be a valuable contribution to future eco-linguistics research.

From the eco-linguistics perspective, the finding of this research illustrates that cultural identity can be affected by the multi-scalar factors from the surrounding context. Nevertheless, there is still plenty of space for future work. First, the finding of this research only demonstrates the traditional arts in macro-level factors in Chinese and Western cultures, but the arts can be various. Therefore, the position of arts in the ecosystem can be studied further. Secondly, based on the findings of Studies 1 and 2, EFL learners often associate their national identity with ethical and moral concepts embedded within their native language. Conversely, they tend to associate critical thinking skills with native English speakers. Future studies can focus more on the relationship between cultural identity, national identity, and critical thinking from the eco-linguistics perspective. As Darvin (2017) states, language “not only constructs meaning but also imposes power.” The eco-linguistics perspective presents a framework for exploring the ever-evolving cultural identities of individuals. It would be valuable to conduct further research on how to be “self” in such a dynamic language ecosystem.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the author, without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts ethics committee (KXLL2023001). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

YP crafted the manuscript, planned, wrote, and completed it, related research was also expertly conducted by the same individual, demonstrating a comprehensive approach to the project.