Work engagement, conceptualized as a positive and fulfilling work-related state of mind characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002), has received increasing attention in organizational and occupational psychology research over the past decade. Work engagement has been found to be associated with positive outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance (Klassen et al., 2013; Karanika-Murray et al., 2015). As a result, investigating the variables that affect work engagement is of great importance for boosting employee well-being and organizational outcomes. One group of employees who may be particularly susceptible to low levels of work engagement are teachers (Hakanen et al., 2006; Perera et al., 2018). Teaching is a demanding and challenging profession, with high levels of emotional labor and job demands that can lead to exhaustion and burnout (Huang et al., 2022). However, work engagement among teachers is critical for ensuring high-quality education and positive student outcomes (Russell and Barrett, 1999; Rothbard, 2001). As such, understanding the correlates of work engagement among teachers is essential for improving the well-being of teachers and ultimately the education of students.

Emotion regulation (ER) can be defined as the collection of techniques that individuals employ to manage their emotional states, which encompasses their moods, feelings, stress, and particular emotions (Koole, 2009; McRae and Gross, 2020). ER is especially important in second language classrooms, as instructors must continually manage their emotions owing to a variety of problems and disappointments (Zheng et al., 2022). It appears that second language (L2) instructors cannot establish a welcoming and effective learning environment in their teaching settings unless they can control their emotions, particularly their unpleasant ones (Richards, 2022; Namaziandost et al., 2023). It has been claimed that emotions are constantly altered by circumstances rather than being intrapersonal occurrences. In this sense, the instructor’s emotions can be affected by a variety of factors, ranging from their own experiences and connections with coworkers, pupils, and supervisors to the immediate cultural, political, and social settings where they are work (Smith and King, 2018).

In the last few years, there has been an upsurge in interest in positive psychology and its applicability in educational contexts (Stiglbauer et al., 2013; Carmona-Halty et al., 2021). A special focus has been placed on how pleasant emotions influence academic engagement and performance (Pekrun and Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012; Zhang et al., 2022). Psychological capital is a positive psychological growth condition characterized by efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience (Luthans et al., 2015). Efficacy relates to having a trusting willingness to embrace and give the required effort to complete difficult jobs. Developing a positive perception of success is referred to as optimism. Hope is defined as sticking to one’s objectives and, when required, altering one’s route in order to succeed. Lastly, when faced with obstacles and hardship, resilience means holding on, recovering, and even going above and beyond to achieve achievement (Luthans and Youssef-Morgan, 2017).

Although research has examined the relationships between teacher emotion regulation, psychological capital, and work engagement separately, few studies have explored how these variables are related to one another in a single model. The relationships among these constructs are conceptualized based on the extant literature and theoretical frameworks. It is postulated that teacher emotion regulation is directly related to work engagement, as teachers’ ability to effectively regulate emotions can impact their emotional experiences and investment in their work (Butakor et al., 2021; Greenier et al., 2021; Deng et al., 2022).

Moreover, psychological capital is hypothesized to mediate the relationship between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement (Cheung et al., 2011; Gyu Park et al., 2017). Emotionally regulated teachers may possess higher levels of self-efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience, which, in turn, contribute to increased work engagement (Gong et al., 2019). The mediating role of psychological capital represents a theoretical mechanism through which emotion regulation is associated with work engagement, offering a comprehensive understanding of the underlying processes involved. As such, to shine new light on the relationship between these variables, the aim of this study is to explore the relationship between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement in English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers and whether psychological capital mediates this relationship. The findings of this study are of significant importance for EFL teachers, who encounter unique challenges, and further investigation into the factors contributing to work engagement among EFL teachers is highly warranted.

The theoretical framework underpinning this research draws from the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory proposed by Hobfoll (1989), providing a comprehensive lens for understanding individuals’ behaviors and responses to stressors across diverse contexts, including the workplace. The COR theory posits that individuals actively strive to acquire, protect, and build resources, and the availability of these resources significantly influences their well-being, motivation, and engagement (Hobfoll, 2002). Within the context of teachers, the demands of the profession can be emotionally and cognitively taxing. Effective emotion regulation serves as a pivotal mechanism to prevent resource depletion by reducing emotional exhaustion and burnout, thus enabling teachers to conserve their valuable psychological resources (Arizmendi Tejeda et al., 2016). Consequently, this conservation process contributes to the development of higher levels of psychological capital, encompassing dimensions such as self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience. Emotion regulation can thus be perceived as an active resource investment strategy, wherein teachers proficient in emotion regulation are more likely to experience positive emotions and mitigate negative emotional experiences (Sutton et al., 2009). These positive emotional encounters serve as a catalyst for the accumulation and investment in psychological capital, ultimately enhancing teachers’ well-being and fostering their work engagement.

The COR theory further postulates that resources are interconnected and can form a dynamic resource caravan (Hobfoll, 1989). In the context of this study, we anticipate that emotion regulation will exert a positive influence on the development of psychological capital. In turn, psychological capital, functioning as a reservoir of positive psychological resources, is expected to be related with work engagement among teachers. This interplay among resources generates a positive cycle, wherein effective emotion regulation facilitates the accumulation and mobilization of psychological capital, thereby nurturing work engagement.

Stress and negative emotions are regarded as resource losses within the COR theory. Through investigating how emotion regulation can ameliorate the impact of stress and negative emotions on teachers’ psychological resources (Moè and Katz, 2021), this study sheds light on the critical role of emotion regulation as a coping mechanism to preserve and enhance psychological capital (Tosten and Toprak, 2017). By understanding the intricate relationship between emotion regulation, psychological capital, and work engagement, this research contributes valuable insights into the mechanisms through which teachers can effectively manage stress and promote their well-being and engagement in the demanding context of the teaching profession. The findings can inform the development of targeted interventions and support strategies aimed at equipping teachers with the necessary emotional regulation skills to navigate the challenges of their profession and thrive in their roles. Moreover, this study aligns with the broader goals of educational research, as it explores factors that influence teacher well-being and effectiveness, ultimately contributing to the enhancement of the educational environment and student outcomes. Against this backdrop, the following hypotheses were formulated:

The existing literature provides compelling evidence supporting the hypothesis that teacher emotion regulation is positively related to teacher work engagement. Numerous studies (Mérida-López and Extremera, 2020; Greenier et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022; Deng et al., 2022; George et al., 2022; Namaziandost et al., 2023) have highlighted the significance of emotion regulation in influencing positive outcomes, including work engagement. In the context of teaching, where instructors encounter various emotional demands, successful emotion regulation becomes particularly crucial (Sutton et al., 2009; Xie, 2021). Teachers who effectively regulate their emotions are more likely to experience positive emotions and reduce negative ones, leading to higher job satisfaction, lower burnout, and increased work engagement (Ghanizadeh and Royaei, 2015; Katana et al., 2019; Fathi et al., 2021; Greenier et al., 2021). Effectively managing their emotions, teachers can better cope with the challenges and demands of their profession, which ultimately contributes to a more engaged and satisfied teaching experience.

Recent research evidence has shown that effective emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and cognitive reappraisal, positively relate to higher levels of psychological capital (Tang and He, 2022). By managing emotions adaptively, individuals are better equipped to build their resilience, maintain a positive outlook, and develop a sense of self-efficacy and hope (Mónico et al., 2016). Also, numerous studies have demonstrated a significant positive association between psychological capital and work engagement across various professional domains, including education (Joo et al., 2016; Viseu et al., 2016). Teachers with higher psychological capital are more likely to engage in their work, as their positive psychological resources drive them to be proactive, motivated, and invested in their teaching roles (Cheung et al., 2011; Viseu et al., 2016; Çimen and Ozgan, 2018). Concerning the mediating role, empirical research in occupational psychology has shown that psychological capital mediates the relationship between various individual and organizational factors and work engagement (Luthans et al., 2008; Cheung et al., 2011; Gyu Park et al., 2017; Gong et al., 2019). In this case, emotion regulation, as an individual factor, is related with work engagement indirectly through its impact on psychological capital. From this perspective, it is hypothesized that teachers who effectively regulate their emotions are more likely to develop higher psychological capital, which, in turn, fosters greater work engagement.

Before assessing the proposed model, SPSS was utilized to scrutinize the data. The examination entailed identifying missing data, assessing normality, and detecting outliers (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). The Expectation–Maximization (EM) algorithm was employed to manage missing data (Kline, 2011). EM is a technique of imputation that substitutes missing data with values. The normality of the items was assessed by using skewness and kurtosis indices. Values that exceeded ±2.0 indicated non-normal distribution. Lastly, both univariate and multivariate outliers were detected. The Z-Standardized scores and Mahalanobis D² were used to identify univariate and multivariate outliers, respectively (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). This study identified and eliminated the outliers and non-normal values, resulting in the final 478 valid cases for further analysis.

Furthermore, independent samples t-tests revealed no significant differences in the study variables with regards to gender, age, or teaching experience. In addition, to ensure the validity of the measurement instruments in the context of the study, three separate confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to test the construct validity of the scales. The results indicated that the scales had adequate model fit (see Table 1).

The CFA results indicate that all three measurement instruments (work engagement, psychological capital, and emotion regulation) had good fit to the proposed measurement model, with CMIN/DF ratios ranging from 1.94 to 2.28 and p < 0.001. The CFI values were all above 0.95, indicating good fit, and the RMSEA values were all below 0.06, which is the recommended threshold for good fit. The SRMR values ranged from 0.027 to 0.036, indicating a good fit for all three instruments. Moreover, the reliability of each measurement instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. All instruments had satisfactory reliability, with alpha coefficients greater than 0.60. Additionally, McDonald’s omega reliability index was computed to cross-validate the findings and produced similar results (see Table 2).

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics and correlations between the three constructs under investigation. The means and standard deviations of the constructs are also reported, along with their skewness and kurtosis indices. The table indicates that all constructs have good reliability coefficients (α > 0.84 and Ω > 0.83). The correlation coefficients show that work engagement is positively and significantly correlated with psychological capital (r = 0.55, p < 0.01) and emotion regulation (r = 0.36, p < 0.01), while psychological capital is positively and significantly correlated with emotion regulation (r = 0.46, p < 0.01). All correlations are significant at the 0.01 level.

The study then continued by examining the direct relationship between the predictor variable, emotion regulation, and the outcome variable, work engagement, through the application of SEM. This preliminary evaluation, often termed the “whole effect,” lays the foundation for subsequent mediation analysis (Little et al., 2007). Such a sequential approach is a well-established practice in SEM, ensuring the systematic exploration of the direct pathway before delving into the mediation effect, where the mediator (psychological capital) influences the initial association (Cheong and MacKinnon, 2012). Assessment of model fit was conducted employing a range of fit indices. The fit indices values were as follows: χ²/df = 1.962, CFI = 0.952, TLI = 0.947, IFI = 0.949, RMSEA = 0.048, and SRMR = 0.062. These findings demonstrated that the simplified direct model provided an adequate representation of the observed data, thereby confirming Hypothesis 1 and establishing the direct link between emotion regulation and work engagement.

With the direct relationship duly established, the study proceeded to integrate the mediator variable, psychological capital, into the model. This mediation model captures the intricate interplay among all three variables. Model fit assessment for this integrated mediation model further substantiated its robustness, with fit indices indicating a suitable fit: χ²/df = 2.080, CFI = 0.945, TLI = 0.940, IFI = 0.943, RMSEA = 0.053, and SRMR = 0.059, confirming H2. The standardized parameter estimates for the integrated model were visually depicted in Figure 1.

Subsequently, to rigorously evaluate the sampling distribution and indirect effects, a widely recognized SEM technique, namely 500 iterations of bootstrap resampling as introduced by Hayes (2009), was employed. This robust procedure enhances the statistical validity of assessing mediation effects and contributes to the study’s comprehensive analytical approach.

Table 3 displays the direct and indirect effects of the structural model and their respective 95% confidence intervals (CI). The f² value, which represents the proportion of variance explained in the dependent variable by the independent variable(s), is also reported. The results indicate that emotion regulation has a significant direct effect on work engagement (B = 0.527, SE = 0.149, β = 0.342, p < 0.001), and psychological capital (B = 0.426, SE = 0.124, β = 0.436, p < 0.001). Additionally, psychological capital has a significant direct effect on work engagement (B = 0.767, SE = 0.186, β = 0.575, p < 0.001). The indirect effect of emotion regulation on work engagement via psychological capital is also significant (B = 0.387, SE = 0.076, β = 0.250, p < 0.001). The combination of teacher psychological capital and teacher emotion regulation accounted for 51.98% of the variance in work engagement, while external factors accounted for the remaining variance.

A Harman’s single factor test was conducted to examine the possible presence of common method variance. The results revealed that the single factor explained 32.67% of the variance, which is less than the recommended threshold of 50%. Therefore, it can be concluded that common method bias was not a major concern in this study. Overall, these findings suggest that emotion regulation and psychological capital are important correlates of work engagement, and that psychological capital partially mediates the relationship between emotion regulation and work engagement.

The present study sought to explore the relationship between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement in Chinese EFL teachers, while also examining the mediating role of psychological capital in this dynamic. Firstly, our findings underscore a noteworthy and positive correlation between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement, aligning harmoniously with prior research (e.g., Mérida-López et al., 2017; Greenier et al., 2021; Xie, 2021; George et al., 2022; Namaziandost et al., 2023). These studies collectively emphasize the pivotal significance of emotion regulation as a predictive factor for work engagement within the realm of educators.

EFL teachers who effectively manage their emotions are better equipped to handle the emotional demands of their profession, resulting in reduced emotional exhaustion and burnout (Ghanizadeh and Royaei, 2015). Moreover, proficient emotion regulation fosters positive emotional experiences such as enthusiasm, joy, and passion, which are key drivers of work engagement (Gong et al., 2013; Butakor et al., 2021; Xie, 2021).

Furthermore, effective emotion regulation empowers teachers to navigate challenging classroom situations with composure and resilience, enabling them to maintain focus on teaching and nurturing a positive and engaging learning environment (Keleynikov et al., 2022; Dai and Wang, 2023). This reciprocal relationship forms a positive feedback loop, as higher levels of work engagement further enhance teachers’ emotion regulation abilities, leading to sustained emotional well-being and job satisfaction (Mérida-López et al., 2017; Deng et al., 2022). Beyond the confines of the classroom, engaged teachers are more proactive in seeking professional development opportunities, fostering collaboration with colleagues, and investing effort in refining their teaching practices (Cai et al., 2022; Fathi et al., 2023).

Mérida-López et al. (2017) findings emphasized that emotional intelligence remains a significant predictor of crucial elements of engagement even after accounting for factors such as instructors’ gender, age, and years of experience in the classroom. This underscores the importance of emotion regulation and psychological well-being in facilitating language instructors’ optimal performance and professional success, further accentuating the role of emotion regulation in promoting work engagement. The Broaden-and-Build theory (Fredrickson, 2013) offers a pertinent perspective, suggesting that positive emotions broaden an individual’s thought-action repertoire and build psychological resources that enable effective coping with environmental challenges. Consequently, the ability to regulate emotions plays a critical role in generating positive emotions, which, in turn, contribute to enhanced work engagement. Put simply, effective emotion regulation leads to positive emotions, broadening teachers’ thoughts and actions while simultaneously building their personal and professional resources, thereby fostering work engagement.

It can be argued that language instructors who excel in emotion regulation are more likely to be mentally, emotionally, and psychologically invested in their teaching roles. Their motivation to exert greater effort in instructional activities stems from feelings of encouragement, pride, importance, and inspiration, as they skillfully use intrinsic and external strategies to modify, evaluate, or regulate their emotions to achieve their goals. Additionally, instructors who possess better emotional control are better equipped to manage tension in the classroom, a factor that significantly impacts the work engagement of EFL teachers (Ghanizadeh and Royaei, 2015; Greenier et al., 2021), thus fostering greater commitment to their teaching duties.

The second objective of this study was to investigate the mediating role of psychological capital in the relationship between emotion regulation and work engagement among EFL teachers. The results demonstrated a significant mediating effect of psychological capital in this relationship, corroborating previous research (Cheung et al., 2011; Rego et al., 2016; Gyu Park et al., 2017; Gong et al., 2019) that highlights the pivotal role of psychological capital as a mechanism through which factors such as leadership, emotional intelligence, and organizational support influence employee well-being, work engagement, and organizational commitment.

The application of Hobfoll’s (1989) well-established Conservation of Resources (COR) theory provides a robust justification for the mediating role of psychological capital. Within the challenging landscape of the teaching profession, teachers endeavor to conserve their invaluable resources, including psychological ones, amidst the demands and pressures they face (Bettini et al., 2020). Effective emotion regulation emerges as a potent strategy enabling teachers to preserve their psychological resources by skillfully managing negative emotions and developing emotional well-being (Butakor et al., 2021). This preservation of psychological capital creates a conducive environment for heightened work engagement, as teachers are more inclined to channel their precious positive resources into their work-related pursuits (Zhang et al., 2019).

Effective emotion regulation empowers teachers to traverse a path punctuated with positive emotional experiences, mitigating emotional exhaustion, and fostering a sense of well-being (Fathi et al., 2021). These uplifting emotional encounters culminate in the development and accumulation of psychological capital, which comprises four dimensions: self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience (Tosten and Toprak, 2017). Serving as an internal reservoir of positive psychological resources, psychological capital equips teachers to confront job demands and stressors (Freire et al., 2020) with resilience and a proactive spirit, thereby catalyzing their deep engagement in their work and infusing their teaching tasks with enthusiasm and dedication (Joo et al., 2016).

The empirical landscape further bolsters the association between emotion regulation strategies, such as reappraisal and cognitive reappraisal, and elevated levels of psychological capital (Tang and He, 2022). In line with existing literature (Joo et al., 2016; Roemer and Harris, 2018), our study underscores the well-established relationship between psychological capital and work engagement. Teachers with heightened psychological capital are more inclined to passionately invest themselves in their work, as their abundant positive psychological resources fuel motivation, purpose, and commitment to their teaching roles (Cheung et al., 2011; Viseu et al., 2016). These findings resonate with prior research (e.g., Bakker and Demerouti, 2007; Luthans et al., 2007), accentuating the transformative potential of psychological capital as a crucial personal resource that empowers individuals to adeptly navigate work demands and maintain unwavering levels of engagement.

Lastly, the non-significant differences in emotion regulation and work engagement across gender, age, and teaching experience suggest that these constructs may have universal relevance and applicability to all teachers (Ford and Lerner, 1992). It also indicates that teachers, irrespective of gender, age, or teaching experience, are adept at employing effective emotion regulation strategies and maintaining positive psychological resources to sustain their work engagement. This finding aligns with theoretical models that emphasize the universality of certain psychological constructs, such as the COR theory, which posits that individuals endeavor to conserve and build resources across diverse contexts. The absence of significant differences in this study lends support to the notion that emotion regulation and work engagement are integral components of a general resource preservation and accumulation process, less influenced by demographic factors.

The current study intended to explore the relationship between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement in EFL teachers and whether psychological capital mediated this relationship. According to the findings of this study, there was a positive relationship between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement in EFL teachers. Language teachers who are more proficient at managing their emotions are more likely to develop a mental, emotional, and psychological attachment to their teachings; they also feel satisfied, motivated, and become totally and passionately engaged in their professional role. It was also found that there was a positive relationship between psychological capital and work engagement among EFL teachers. People can have prosperous and meaningful lives by having psychological capital, which acts as a beneficial guiding mindset. The reason for this is that people who have access to psychological resources, like PsyCap, are more joyful and more engaged at work.

The findings unveil a wealth of promising implications, both theoretically and practically, that contribute novel insights to the realm of work engagement. Theoretically, our research enriches the existing literature on work engagement by illuminating the intricate mediating role of psychological capital in the dynamic relationship between teacher emotion regulation and work engagement. This discovery resonates harmoniously with prior studies, affirming the paramount importance of psychological capital as a potent resource capable of buffering against stress and fostering well-being within the workplace (Luthans and Youssef-Morgan, 2017). By unraveling the mediating effect of psychological capital, our study unveils the hidden mechanisms that propel the connection between emotion regulation and work engagement, adding depth and nuance to the understanding of English teachers’ experiences.

Practically, our findings bear transformative implications for educators and school administrators, paving the way for targeted interventions that can enhance teachers’ work engagement and overall welfare. Professional development programs geared towards teachers should transcend the conventional focus on instructional skills and acknowledge the pivotal role of emotion regulation strategies. Equipping teachers with robust training and unwavering support in effectively managing their emotions bestows them with heightened psychological capital, fostering a harmonious and invigorating work environment. With enlightened school administrators at the helm, policies and practices that champion emotion regulation and psychological capital development can take root, developing a supportive and inclusive school culture that cherishes teachers’ emotional well-being, thereby catalyzing their work engagement and job satisfaction. Integrating modules on emotion regulation and psychological capital within teacher training programs will illuminate their relevance and profound impact on work engagement, empowering future educators to adeptly navigate the emotional challenges intrinsic to the teaching profession, perpetuating sustained engagement and unwavering resilience throughout their careers. Moreover, our findings shed light on the pertinence of recognizing individual differences in emotion regulation and psychological capital among teachers. Embracing a tailored approach, school leaders and administrators can adeptly cater to the unique needs of each teacher, thereby fostering a utopian work environment characterized by unwavering positivity and thriving spirits.

As an example, educators, principals, school psychologists, and therapists are urged to collaborate on developing, preparing, and implementing educational and therapy programs that seek to develop pupils. Long-term psychological capabilities, such as psychological capital, to support beneficial mental health in educational settings. Implementing PsyCap-oriented courses could not only improve teachers’ wellbeing and work engagement, but also stop the occurrence of unfavorable outcomes (such as anxiety, burnout, and quitting the job). The acquired data can help educational administrators at universities focus on psycho-emotional dimensions, including ER among university instructors. For instance, they can conduct exams to see if university instructors can effectively control their emotions, and if not, they can schedule therapeutic psychological consultations to address the issue. The results may also help teachers include ER in their curriculum so that teaching students become familiar with it for their careers. In the end, the findings may help university instructors understand that they must control their feelings at work if they want to increase their confidence, workplace-derangement, and rage.

Moreover, the study sheds light on the unique challenges faced by EFL teachers and stresses the importance of addressing these challenges in interventions aimed at enhancing their work engagement. Language barriers, cultural differences, and other challenges in teaching should be considered when designing interventions that help EFL teachers stay engaged in their work. Finally, the findings might underscore the necessity for cross-cultural research to explore the generalizability of the findings to different cultural contexts. Such research could help identify cultural differences that need to be considered when designing interventions aimed at enhancing work engagement among EFL teachers in different settings.

Despite the profound implications of our discoveries, it is vital to acknowledge the following limitations, which call for further exploration and refinement. Firstly, data collection relied on self-report measures, possibly susceptible to common method bias and the covert influence of social desirability. Respondents might have leaned towards socially acceptable responses, potentially skewing or inflating the outcomes. To fortify the validity of our findings, future investigations could integrate diverse data sources, such as objective performance measures or observer ratings, to gain a more comprehensive understanding.

Secondly, the cross-sectional nature of our study restricts causal inferences between the variables under scrutiny. While we tested the proposed mediation model, the true directionality of relationships remains elusive. To bolster the evidential foundation for the mediating role of psychological capital in the link between emotion regulation and work engagement, longitudinal or experimental research designs may offer more compelling evidence. Furthermore, our sample exclusively comprised Chinese teachers, which may hinder generalizing the findings to educators from distinct cultural backgrounds or educational systems. Culture and contextual factors can wield a substantial influence on emotion regulation and work engagement. Replicating the study in diverse cultural settings is essential to assess the robustness and cross-cultural applicability of the results.

Moreover, our study predominantly relied on quantitative measures, overlooking the valuable insights qualitative data can offer into the lived experiences of teachers concerning emotion regulation and work engagement. Integrating qualitative research methods, such as interviews or focus groups, can unlock a richer understanding of the underlying mechanisms that drive the observed relationships. Lastly, we did not account for potential confounding variables that might exert an influence on the relationship between emotion regulation, psychological capital, and work engagement. Variables like job demands, organizational support, and individual traits could interact with the studied constructs, potentially affecting the outcomes. Future studies could incorporate additional control variables to refine the precision of the findings and enhance the overall comprehensiveness of the research.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

The studies involving humans were approved by College of Foreign Languages, Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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