Poverty is a multi-dimensional phenomenon that encompasses privation of education, health, or housing (Bayón, 2013), and is a relevant factor in social vulnerability. According to The World Bank (2022), by the end of 2022, as many as 685 million people (9.3% of the world population) could still be living in extreme poverty, suffering severe difficulties to satisfy their most basic needs, such as health, education, and access to water and sanitation. In Spain, 27.8% of the population lives in poverty and social exclusion (European Anti-Poverty Network, 2022). In macro-economic terms, reports warn of an increase in unemployment, leading to an increase in poverty and vulnerability (European Anti-Poverty Network, 2022). In this socio-economic context, the negative perceptions of the poor and their functioning warrant our understanding, since they underlie responses and behaviours regarding social inequalities, justice, equity, and social policy development (e.g., Mayorga Coy, 2018; Bastias et al., 2019; Contreras-Montero and Hidalgo-Mesa, 2021). This interest has led to the development of many studies on the perception and causal explanations or attitudes are the most frequently constructs researched (Dakduk et al., 2010; Lepianka et al., 2010; Pereira Da Costa and Dias, 2013; Sainz et al., 2022).

Currently, approach of attitudinal models has converged in a definition that contemplates a global evaluative disposition toward attitude, which is determined by components or experiences of cognitive, affective and behavioural information in relation to the attitudinal object and is inferred from observable, cognitive, affective and behavioural or behavioural intention responses (Bohner and Wanke, 2002; López-Sáez et al., 2019). Within this framework, social perception processes contemplate the emotional or affective component as a fundamental element of our attitudes toward people and groups, which can predict our behaviour as well as our relationship with others and the world. In turn, the cognitive component of attitude or stereotype, which is generated through our social interaction, is configured as a culturally defined mental representation, and is therefore subject to social, ideological and cultural determinants (Vázquez and Martínez, 2008).

There is a link between the social construction of gender and the mental representation of either stereotype, which can also be expressed through the attitudes that distinguish men and women in relation to a social phenomenon or group, as in the case of poverty. Some studies show, for example, how a culturally established gender system can privately and publicly influence women’s perceptions and the activation of a stereotype (Quinn et al., 2003; Vázquez and Martínez, 2011). These different perceptions of poverty depend on three factors that construct the internal representation of gender: social practices and roles, social representations of gender, and gender inequalities (Vázquez and Martínez, 2012). In this sense, different studies highlight that it is women who show more favourable beliefs, referring to external factors as causes of poverty and that there are unpredictable or uncontrollable circumstances that lead the poor to be in this situation (Norcia et al., 2010; Bastias et al., 2019). According to this social and cultural construction of gender, other studies confirm that women’s perspective of this problem goes beyond individual circumstances; they also display more favourable attitudes toward the poor and are more in favour of welfare policies (Norcia et al., 2010; Bastias et al., 2019).

Related to the perception of poverty, social class or socio-economic status has been considered a relevant determinants of perceptions of poverty, indicating that people from a low social class or low socio-economic level tend to perceive poverty as linked to external factors. Conversely, those from an upper social class or socio-economic level relate it to the internal or dependent factors of an individual (Norcia et al., 2010; Mickelson and Hazlett, 2014; Bastias et al., 2019). In addition, values like political and religious beliefs are also shown to influence the perceptions and attitudes toward poverty. For those with a more conservative stance or having right-wing or centre-right ideas, more individual or personal responsibility explanations are referred to. On the other hand, those with a more progressive stance or with left-wing or centre-left ideas emphasize the structural and social aspects and have more favourable attitudes toward the welfare system (Bobbio et al., 2010; Lepianka et al., 2010; Vázquez et al., 2017; Boeh, 2018; Bergmann and Todd, 2019; Contreras-Montero and Hidalgo-Mesa, 2021; Toft and Calhoun, 2021; Vázquez and Panadero, 2022). With respect to religion, some studies do not agree that there is a relation between traditional or catholic beliefs and situational or external explanations for the causes of poverty (Vázquez et al., 2017), while other studies document this result (Lepianka et al., 2010). In contrast, other studies link these religious beliefs to factors of individual responsibility for poverty (Boeh, 2018; Bergmann and Todd, 2019).

In sum, evidence on the perception of poverty supports the relationship of the aforementioned variables, such as being a woman, or social class, as well as the role of other individual political and religious beliefs. But, this study emphasizes the importance of differentiating the reactions of women and men within their cultural context with their religious values and ideologies, which can explain the more favourable attitudes of women toward social welfare, vulnerable groups and engaging in activities volunteering (Wemlinger and Berlan, 2016; Bellindo et al., 2021). Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyse perceptions of poverty, identifying the differences in attitudinal profiles between men and women, and the influence of their political and religious beliefs. In line with literature, the hypotheses are: (1) that women will show more favourable attitudes and attitudinal profiles toward poverty; and (2) that individuals with more favourable attitude profiles will differ in their political ideas (left-wing or centre-left) and perception of belonging to a low or middle-low social class.

In a first general analysis of the differences between women and men, women show more positive affective attitudes toward poor people, which is in line with the reviewed studies on the perception of poverty (Bullock, 1999; Norcia et al., 2010; Bastias et al., 2019). However, the results do not present significant differences in the cognitive component or stereotype (positive or negative). Women’s stereotype of the poor is especially characterized by a lower negative loading, and according to the proposals of attitudinal theories (Osgood and Tannenbaum, 1955; Festinger, 1957; Heider, 1958), this would “coherently” lead women’s attitude to be more positively affective in contrast to men.

Within profile analysis, both women and men present two profiles. One matches to the majority (≥0.70%) and is characterized by more favourable affective attitudes, higher positive stereotype and less negative stereotype, and no religious beliefs as well as left-wing or centre-left political ideas. The second profile (≥0.25%) comprises those who present less favourable attitudes, a less positive and more negative stereotype, with religious beliefs and more right-wing or centre-right ideologies. It is important to note that a middle-large effect size is obtained for the difference between the first and second profiles of men, whereas it is small-middle for women. In addition, there is a difference with respect to social class in women, being mainly low or middle-low as in the first profile, which represents more favourable attitudes. In the comparison between women and men, in profiles 1 and 2, no differences were found in the cognitive component (positive and negative stereotype). With respect to the affective component, there were no differences in the profiles 1, but significant differences were found in the profiles 2, where women showed more positive affective attitudes than men (z = −3.73; p < 0.001). Nevertheless, this group of women does show less favourable affective attitudes (z = −2.26; p = 0.024) compared with the women in the first profile (low or middle-low class, no religious beliefs, left-wing or centre-left political ideas).

Thus, for the first hypothesis, women confirmed positive attitudinal differences in the affective component. According to the results of the profiles, these differences demonstrate an effect mediated by the processes of socialisation developed around gender roles and stereotypes but in interaction with certain religious or political values. Knowing all the complexity of these processes would further define the cognitive and attitudinal development of women in private and public contexts, and how their attitudes toward poverty and the poor also determine their commitments to equality or social justice (Quinn et al., 2003; Vázquez and Martínez, 2011, 2012; Özpinar and Akdede, 2022; Vázquez and Panadero, 2022). Nevertheless, in view of the results, this mediation of religious and political values and their interaction with gender could also reveal the differences between women’s profiles and between men’s profiles.

For the second hypothesis, the influence of both women and men’s political ideas is confirmed. This supports the results of previous research about poverty and political ideas (Bullock, 1999; Ljubotina and Ljubotina, 2007; Bobbio et al., 2010; Lepianka et al., 2010; Vázquez et al., 2017; Boeh, 2018; Bergmann and Todd, 2019; Contreras-Montero and Hidalgo-Mesa, 2021; Toft and Calhoun, 2021; Vázquez and Panadero, 2022). However, according to the profile analysis for social class, we found that its influence on attitudes is confirmed for women only. This result differs from most of the literature reviewed regarding the importance attributed to social class in perceptions of poverty (Bullock, 1999; Cozzarelli et al., 2001; Lepianka et al., 2010; Norcia et al., 2010; Mickelson and Hazlett, 2014; Pereira Da Costa and Dias, 2015; Bastias et al., 2019; Yúdica et al., 2021; Mdluli and Dunga, 2022).

The results of this study provide a reflection on the influence of religious and ideological values through socialisation processes, and an understanding of differential cognitive and affective development according to contexts and learning. Since stereotypes and perceptions about poverty play an important role in supporting the implementation of welfare policies and social programs for poor people, this study confirms that women show positive attitudes toward poverty depending on different religious or political values (Vázquez et al., 2017; Morias et al., 2019; Vázquez and Panadero, 2022). Given this, it is important to note that the process of socialisation across ideologies and religious or spiritual values may be even more powerful than campaigns designed to change attitudes toward poverty and toward the social welfare system in the community.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving humans were approved by Research ethics and integrity committee. Vicerrectorate of Research Miguel Hernández University of Elche (O.I.R: Research Office Registered: 191204114702; 2019.546.E.OIR; Reference: DCC.MMG.01.19). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

MM-A and MT: conceptualization. MT and JG: methodology and formal analysis. MT: data curation and supervision. AB and CV: writing—original draft preparation. CV and MT: writing—review and editing. CV: visualisation. MM-A: project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.