A cross-sectional study design was employed to investigate the relationships between emotions, COVID-19 related thoughts, and life satisfaction. Data collection was conducted through an online survey method. The survey was hosted on the Wenjuanxing platform, which is an internet-based survey platform. To recruit participants, a questionnaire was created on Wenjuanxing and QR code images as well as survey links were generated. Participants were recruited from China through internet forums and popular social media platforms such as WeChat and QQ. The recruitment period was from December 13th, 2022, to January 13th, 2023.

We actively promoted and shared the questionnaire links with potential participants through social media platforms such as WeChat and QQ, both through group chats and individual conversations. Additionally, we utilized the wide reach of social media platforms, such as WeChat Moments, to post the survey links and QR codes. We also requested friends, family, colleagues, and others to help forward and share them, in order to attract more potential participants. Individuals could access the online web survey by scanning QR codes posted on WeChat or QQ using their mobile phones or by clicking on the provided survey link. A total of 1,610 individuals completed our questionnaire.

The study inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) individuals aged 18 years or older who were capable of independently completing an online questionnaire; (2) those in good health with no history of COVID-19 infection, major illness, or surgery before the Omicron variant BA.5.2 or BF.7 epidemic in December 2022. Participants were asked to self-report any mental health conditions in the questionnaire, and those who reported pre-existing mental health conditions or were receiving treatment for depression or anxiety were excluded. However, it should be noted that due to the self-reported nature of mental health conditions in the questionnaire, there is a possibility that individuals with undiagnosed pre-existing conditions could meet the survey inclusion criteria. This limitation is challenging for us to avoid. Additionally, the exclusion criteria were as follows: (1) responses completed in less than 60 s; (2) participants whose responses displayed a high degree of consistency with the same answer throughout the questionnaire. Among the participants who accessed the survey, 98.01% met these inclusion criteria, resulting in a final sample size of 1,578.

Before the formal survey, a preliminary question was included to inquire whether participants agreed to participate in the study. Only those who agreed were guided to proceed with answering the subsequent survey questions. If participants did not agree, they were unable to continue with the survey. All participants were informed that their responses would be anonymous, and participation was voluntary. Participants provided consent to participate, and prior to data collection, the study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee of the School of Humanities at Hubei University of Chinese Medicine (ethical clearance number: P_2022037) to ensure the ethical treatment of human participants.

The statistical software SPSS 20 (IBM, New York, NY, USA) was used to conduct data analysis in this study. The dataset was examined for improbability, normality, univariate outliers, and missingness. Categorical data were expressed in frequency and percentage, whereas continuous data were expressed as the mean ± SD for normally distributed data. To analyze the association relationship, appropriate statistical tests such as independent samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and correlation analyses (Pearson’s) were to assess the predicted relationships between positive emotion, negative emotion, positive thoughts, negative thoughts, and satisfaction with life. Pearson coefficients range from +1 to −1, indicating a positive or negative correlation respectively, while 0 represents no correlation.

To investigate whether positive thoughts and negative thoughts mediate the relationship between positive/negative emotion and satisfaction with life, the researchers utilized the PROCESS macro (model 4) developed by Hayes (2018). This analysis was conducted while controlling for sex, age, education level, and COVID-19 infection status. The PROCESS macro estimates the significance of the cross-product of path A, which is the mediator-predictor coefficient, and path B, the outcome-mediator coefficient, while controlling for the predictor. To test the mediation effect, we employed Hayes’s method (Hayes, 2018) with 5,000 bootstrapped samples to obtain the 95% bias-corrected and accelerated confidence intervals (CIs) of the indirect effects of positive and negative emotions on life satisfaction through positive and negative thoughts, respectively. If the CI of the indirect effect did not include zero, a significant mediation effect was concluded. All statistical analyses were conducted at a 95% confidence interval, and p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Among the 1,578 participants who enrolled in this study, the majority (n = 1,329, 84.2%) were aged 30 or below at the start of the study. Female participants (n = 996, 63.1%) slightly outnumbered their male counterparts. The majority of participants held a graduate-level education (n = 1,245, 78.9%). Most of the participants were dealing with the Omicron variant BA.5.2 and BF.7 of COVID-19. Most have been recovered (n = 1,089, 69.0%). The factors analyzed are significant difference between categorical variables (Table 2).

Significant differences in positive emotions were found between the uninfected, infected and recovered groups. The participants who were infected COVID-19 (Omicron variant BA.5.2 or BF.7) have the lower positive emotion compared to the uninfected group and the recovered group. However, no significant differences were found in positive emotion between sex, age and educational level. In contrast, there were no statistically significant differences found in negative emotions related to any demographic characteristics of the participants (Table 3).

Sex, age, and COVID-19 infection status were found to be significantly (p < 0.01) associated with positive thoughts. Specifically, females and uninfected participants had higher scores on positive thoughts. The groups of participants aged 51–60 years old and over 60 years old (whose scores were similarly high) had higher scores than the groups aged 41–50 years old and under 30 years old (whose scores were similarly low). The detailed correlation results are presented in Table 3.

Sex, age, and educational level were found to be significantly (p < 0.01) associated with negative thoughts, with lower scores on males and the group of secondary educational level. The group of participants under 30 years old had significantly lower scores than the groups aged 31–40 years old and 41–50 years old (whose scores were similarly low). The detailed correlation results are presented in Table 3.

Age, educational level, and COVID-19 infection status were found to be significant predictors (p < 0.01) of satisfaction with life. The results showed that older participants (51–60 years old) had higher satisfaction scores than the group of participants aged 31–40 years old and the group of participants under 30 years old (whose scores were similar). Postgraduate students were more satisfied than undergraduates. The participants who recovered from the COVID-19 (Omicron variant BA.5.2 or BF.7) had higher scores the infecting ones (Table 3).

The observed variables’ means, standard deviations, and correlations were displayed in Table 4. The means (SD) of positive emotion, negative emotion, positive thoughts, negative thoughts, and satisfaction with life were 14.32 (3.48), 12.10 (4.47), 22.46 (5.47), 18.87 (5.11), and 20.03 (7.23), respectively. Correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between the variables. These analyses revealed several significant findings. Firstly, positive emotion showed a positive correlated with positive thoughts (r = 0.33, p < 0.01) and satisfaction with life (r = 0.49, p < 0.01). This suggested that individuals experiencing higher levels of positive emotion also reported more positive thoughts and greater satisfaction with life. Secondly, negative emotion exhibited a positive correlation with negative thoughts (r = 0.39, p < 0.01). Additionally, it was inversely correlated with positive thoughts (r = −0.17, p < 0.01) and satisfaction with life (r = −0.20, p < 0.01). These findings indicated that higher levels of negative emotion were associated with more negative thoughts and lower levels of both positive thoughts and satisfaction with life. Lastly, positive thoughts displayed a moderate positive correlation with satisfaction with life (r = 0.43, p < 0.01). This suggested that individuals who reported more positive thoughts also tended to have a higher level of satisfaction with life.

To investigate the potential mediating role of thoughts, mediation analyses were conducted, controlling for sex, age, education level, and COVID-19 infection status. Previous research suggests that sex, age, and COVID-19 infection status may influence cognition and life satisfaction, so we included them as covariates in our analysis (Bartels, 2015; Liu et al., 2020; Levacher et al., 2023). The results were presented below, with a focus on enhancing clarity and ensuring all findings were appropriately discussed.

As previously mentioned, well-being is a complex and multifaceted concept that generally refers to having a positive outlook on life and being happy and satisfied (Diener, 2000; Seckman, 2023). It can be categorized into three types: psychological well-being, social well-being and emotional well-being (Snyder and Lopez, 2007). In this study, we specifically focused on emotional well-being, which refers to life satisfaction, positive emotions, while minimizing negative emotions. For measuring these aspects, we have chosen the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), both widely used and validated measurement tools (Cooke et al., 2022; Levacher et al., 2023).

The context of our study focused on the rapid transition of the Chinese government’s COVID-19 control policy, which shifted from strict regulations to a state of total openness. This sudden change, coupled with subsequent widespread infections, caught many people off guard. In order to quickly assess the impact of COVID-19 on individuals’ emotions, cognition, and life satisfaction, we opted for a cross-sectional design. This design allowed us to efficiently gather a substantial amount of data and obtain relevant information in a timely manner. While alternative methods, such as a longitudinal design encompassing multiple time points, may provide insights into the long-term effects and dynamic associations between variables, it was our primary objective to capture the immediate impact of this unprecedented historical moment on people’s well-being. We highly valued the opportunity to examine this unique situation and its implications for individuals’ overall well-being. Through the utilizing of a cross-sectional design, we were able to promptly capture this historical moment, providing a snapshot of the pandemic’s impact situation and generating hypotheses and guidance for future research. While the COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on the mental health of individuals, leading to the emergence of a variety of mental illnesses (see Alimoradi et al., 2022; Şimşir et al., 2022), we specifically selected participants without pre-existing mental health conditions to better understand how COVID-19 has affected the well-being of ordinary, healthy individuals.

Improving life satisfaction can enhance well-being, with positive emotions often serving as indicators of well-being. However, it’s important to acknowledge that various stressors and the negative emotions they bring about do not promote well-being (Esposito et al., 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has had a profound impact on individuals’ sense of well-being, leading to increased stress levels and negative emotions. Existing literature and reviews have primarily focused on measuring anxiety, depression, and stress levels during the pandemic (Lindert et al., 2021; Alimoradi et al., 2022; Almgren et al., 2022; Şimşir et al., 2022), while paying limited attention to the overall well-being of individuals (see Esposito et al., 2021; Sterina et al., 2021; Seckman, 2023). Consequently, the exploration of the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and well-being is crucial for understanding its impact and designing effective interventions to support overall well-being.

In order to understand the factors that influence well-being during difficult times, it is essential to control some individual and societal factors such as health, age, financial status, job satisfaction and so on (Pappa et al., 2020; Bakioğlu et al., 2021; Lopez-Leon et al., 2021). In our study, we also took into account the variables of sex, age, education level, and COVID-19 infection status. Our findings showed that age, education level, and COVID-19 infection status were significant predictors of life satisfaction (see Table 3), aligning with previous research findings (Pappa et al., 2020; Cox et al., 2021; Balakrishnan et al., 2022). However, we did not consider economic factors in our study due to the specific context of our research period, which was conducted from December 13th, 2022, to January 13th, 2023, during a time when the social and economic situation in China differed from the initial lockdown period in 2020. It was observed that individuals’ economic incomes were not significantly affected during this time. Additionally, to account for the potential influence of mental health status, particularly mental illnesses, on subjective well-being, we specifically controlled for participants’ mental health status. None of the participants reported a history of mental illness, such as anxiety or depression. By controlling for mental health status, our aim was to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of COVID-19 on subjective well-being.

Our analysis revealed that participants who were infected with COVID-19 (specifically Omicron variant BA.5.2 or BF.7) had lower levels of positive emotions compared to the uninfected group and the group that had recovered from the infection. Furthermore, uninfected participants displayed more positive thoughts about the COVID-19 pandemic than infected participants. Additionally, those who had recovered from COVID-19 exhibited higher satisfaction with life scores compared to those currently infected, as shown in Table 3. Furthermore, sex, age was found to have a significant association (ps < 0.01) with positive or negative thoughts.

These findings suggest that contracting COVID-19 may evoke negative emotions and reduce life satisfaction. However, the satisfaction with life of individuals who have recovered from the infection tends to return to normal or even surpass the levels of those who have never been infected. This indicates that the negative effects on mental health caused by COVID-19 are not necessarily permanent, and individuals can recover and even experience increased satisfaction with their lives after overcoming setbacks.

Our study found a significant relationship between individuals’ thoughts about the COVID-19 pandemic and their emotions, supporting our hypothesis (H1a). This finding was consistent with prior research on the connection between cognitive factors and emotional outcomes (e.g., Prochwicz et al., 2020). Furthermore, our results suggested that this relationship is stronger during periods of widespread infection when COVID-19 prevention and control measures were being relaxed, compared to periods of strict control. One possible explanation for this finding is that individuals may feel less in control and more vulnerable during a time of relaxed policies, which could amplify the impact of their thoughts about COVID-19 on their emotions (e.g., Lench et al., 2019; Esterwood and Saeed, 2020; Bakioğlu et al., 2021).

Our study also discovered a significant correlation between positive thoughts about COVID-19 and life satisfaction, while negative thoughts were inversely related to life satisfaction, supporting H1b. This finding suggested that the way individuals perceive and think about the COVID-19 pandemic during this unprecedented period may play an important role in their subjective well-being. Our findings aligned with previous research on the role of cognitive factors in subjective well-being (e.g., Cox et al., 2021; Levacher et al., 2023). The fact that positive thoughts were associated with greater life satisfaction reinforces the idea that positive thoughts could be a powerful tool for improving well-being, even in the face of stressful life events. However, it was important to note that our study was not able to establish a causal relationship between thoughts about COVID-19 and life satisfaction. It was plausible that individuals who naturally possessed more optimism or resilience were more likely to have positive thoughts about the pandemic and higher levels of life satisfaction, rather than the reverse scenario.

People’s quality of life is influenced by the satisfaction of various human needs, including the presence of positive thoughts and emotions (Sirgy, 2021). In addition to the direct impact of the COVID-19 pandemic itself, individuals’ thought patterns and emotional states play a significant role in shaping their well-being. Emotions are an individual’s response to external, objective circumstances, while thoughts are subjective and influenced by temperament, personality, values, goals, and cultural and societal factors. Emotions can impact cognition, and in turn, cognition can influence one’s subjective feelings. When faced with similar changes in the external environment, some individuals adapt better than others, which could be influenced by their perceptions and understanding of the COVID-19 pandemic. Our findings suggested that individuals’ positive thoughts about the COVID-19 pandemic and their overall positive emotional state contribute significantly to their overall well-being.

By controlling sex, age, education level and COVID-19 infection status, we can better isolate the effects of the variables of interest (i.e., positive/negative emotions experienced by individuals and positive thoughts) on life satisfaction and determine whether positive thoughts mediate the relationship between emotions and life satisfaction with higher validity and reliability. The results of our study suggested that positive thoughts about COVID-19 play an important mediating role in the relationship between positive or negative emotions and satisfaction with life (H2a). Our findings indicated that individuals who maintain positive thoughts about COVID-19 were more likely to experience greater subjective well-being, even in the face of challenging circumstances. Interestingly, we did not find evidence that negative thoughts about COVID-19 had mediating effects. This suggests that negative thoughts about the pandemic may not be as important for determining levels of life satisfaction as positive thoughts. Previous studies have found that infection with COVID-19 can have a negative impact on an individual’s cognition for a considerable period of time (Lindert et al., 2021; Lopez-Leon et al., 2021; Almgren et al., 2022; Balakrishnan et al., 2022; Şimşir et al., 2022; Vilca et al., 2022). This could be related to the extent of damage to people’s bodies caused by the novel coronavirus at the time. It is possible that negative thoughts may have a more immediate impact on emotional states, but positive thoughts may have a more enduring influence on overall well-being. As the infectivity of novel coronavirus increases, the disease-causing symptoms are weakened and the impact on the individual’s physical damage is reduced, but the impact on the individual’s mental health is not as severe. In this context, how individuals view and respond positively to COVID-19 infection is critical to their mental health. While heightened mortality awareness may cause an increase in negativity and defensiveness (Schippers and Ziegler, 2019), it is important to note that increased fear and anxiety can also contribute to post-traumatic growth and finding meaning in difficult experiences (Pyszczynski et al., 2015; De Jong et al., 2020). For instance, individuals who report greater existential concerns related to COVID-19 may experience greater emotional and psychological well-being (Cox et al., 2021). Therefore, we do not need to blindly ask people to reduce negative perceptions, which are unavoidable in the role of negative emotions. But what we can do to retain or build as many positive perceptions as possible is the key to later life satisfaction.

Our study also emphasized the importance of exploring potential moderators in relation to well-being. Previous research has demonstrated that personality traits like optimism and mastery resilience may moderate the impact of stressful events on mental health outcomes (e.g., Park, 2010; De Jong et al., 2020; Esterwood and Saeed, 2020). Still, it is important to acknowledge that our study cannot establish a causal relationship between COVID-19 perception and life satisfaction. It is plausible that individuals with inherent optimism or effective coping mechanisms exhibit greater resilience, making them more likely to hold positive thoughts about the pandemic and experience higher levels of life satisfaction, as supported by other studies (e.g., Sterina et al., 2021; Seckman, 2023). Furthermore, it has been suggested that frustration serves as the foundation for psychological resilience (Snyder, 2021). Although our study alone cannot provide sufficient evidence, it is theoretically possible that individuals may have developed increased mental resilience as a result of experiencing the pandemic for 3 years. It would be interesting to explore whether these personality factors moderate the mediating effects of positive thoughts about COVID-19 on satisfaction with life. Nonetheless, these findings had important implications for public health interventions to mitigate the psychological impact of infectious disease outbreaks. Interventions that focus on promoting positive thinking and reducing negative thoughts about the pandemic may be effective in promoting greater satisfaction with life among individuals who are struggling to adjust to this new reality. Overall, our study provided valuable insights into the complex relationship between cognitive factors, emotions, and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, and had practical implications for promoting well-being. Promoting positive thinking about the pandemic may be key to improving overall life satisfaction, especially among those who were finding it difficult to cope with the current situation. Continued research is needed to explore these relationships, as well as potential moderators and mechanisms underlying these effects.

Unfortunately, our study did not focus on the dynamical changes in people’s metal health during this period. Future studies could consider longitudinal designs to track the psychological changes of individuals during this critical historical period. Additionally, future research could further explore strategies to help people develop and maintain positive thoughts during public health and security emergencies or other real-world catastrophes. It is important to investigate these factors in greater depth, along with other potential moderators of the relationship between thoughts about COVID-19 and satisfaction with life, to better understand how to promote resilience and well-being during global crises.