In the world of professional sports, refining and integrating psychological skills is often viewed as a logical extension of physical training (e.g., MacNamara et al., 2010; Toth et al., 2020). When it comes to improving human performance, the positive impact of psychological skills interventions is both well-known and accepted (Mahoney et al., 1987; Whelan et al., 1991; Birrer and Morgan, 2010; MacNamara et al., 2010; Macnamara et al., 2016). In addition, there is a considerable body of research that supports the implementation of mental skill training (MST) for performers outside sports who routinely experience stress invoking events, such as first responders and practitioners in the field of emergency medicine (e.g., Cocks et al., 2014; Anton et al., 2017, 2020; Deshauer et al., 2019). Internationally, there remains a gap in the human performance psychology research literature as to how allied MST techniques and practices can best be utilized in the military in general (Jensen et al., 2020). Furthermore, given the range of specialisms within the military, it is important to address each subgroup context and culture specifically (Ytterbøl et al., 2022). Of course, effective performance psychology interventions have been tested and applied in apparently similar environments such as Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) teams (cf. Liu et al., 2018; Steingräber et al., 2022). Because of our interest and involvement, we wanted to examine whether MST could be applied to another extreme environment, namely the training of snipers. With reference to marksmanship and its associated psycho-motor-behavioral aspects (e.g., Konttinen et al., 1995, 2007; Laaksonen et al., 2018; Tornero-Aguilera et al., 2021), interesting work has been undertaken to understand and improve shooting skills—albeit in a sport shooting environment. Whether as a rifleman or an athlete, aspects of firing a weapon are motorically alike (Magill and Anderson, 2014), but the decision-making trade-offs bear comparison (stealth vs. engagement). In short, military applications of this skill are markedly different. Sport-related shooting is performed in controlled environments, whereas a marksman/sniper must perform in a highly unpredictable environment, often with a looming threat to own safety (Dougan, 2004; Pegler, 2011). Consequently, it is important to distinguish this context from the one in the current literature, which is closest to it, namely SWAT teams. Table 1 presents a comparison using the Antecedent, Behavior, Consequences model (Yoman, 2008).

As shown, the contexts and consequent challenges differ considerably, and perhaps one of the largest differences for a sniper vs. in a SWAT team is the volume of individual decision-making, based on the intention of the mission and what is happening in the battlespace.

As the context described in this study, the Norwegian Army sniper course is 7 weeks in duration. The course is built around sniper tactics and techniques. In short, in addition to shooting from several weapon platforms in a variety of different contexts, the other key skills include navigation, stalking, observing, plus using both analog and technological methods to measure wind, distance, angle, and temperature. In a high-stake environment, candidates are required to understand internal and external ballistics and be able to convert advanced theory applied to a practical setting, while using and employing advanced equipment efficiently. In addition, these judgments must be performed within a dynamic time frame, under pressure.

As a sniper pair, or as a single shooter, snipers need to be proficient in delivering precise long-distance shots from concealed positions, both at night and during the day. The ability to rapidly identify and acquire moving targets and shoot from several improvised shooting positions, both in an urban and rural environment, is also taught and assessed. To pass the course, the candidate needs to have a 70% pass rate on fieldcraft (navigation, stalking, observation skills, and combined tests where shooting is integrated) and an 80% pass on the shooting component of the course.

In the sniper course, there are 135 tests, 70 are different shooting tests, 65 tests are distributed between stalking, observation, judging distance, navigation, memory (KIMS), practical external ballistics, and shooting formulas (i.e., applied tables for windage, angles, and moving targets) and spotter (observer) tests. These tests are distributed throughout the course, while several are exactly the same and frequently repeated over the length of the course (Huse, 2020). The tempo of the program is high; 12+ h days are commonplace, and the sniper candidates' performance is assessed daily. These factors combine to make it one of, if not—the most demanding course for soldiers in the Norwegian Armed forces, and the course serves as the training pathway to becoming an operational sniper.

Therefore, reflecting these extremes of challenge, we were interested in examining the extent to which a performance psychology intervention, built on pre-existing grounds, as described, but with domain specific adjustments could be applied to this special military context (cf. Ytterbøl et al., 2022). To evaluate the impact of the performance psychology input, we examined outcome scores, reactions of participants, and perceptions of providers and used a 1-year follow-up to test the extent to which the knowledge conveyed had proven useful in the field.

As presented in the introduction, current research and applications of MST are plentiful and the effects point in a positive direction. However, there is a gap in research on “which aspects of MST are most relevant to the military” (Jensen et al., 2020, p. 11) and in addition, a lack of bespoke solutions for elite units and SOF in particular (Ytterbøl et al., 2022). Therefore, the authors wanted to present a bespoke approach to this special context presenting the overarching philosophical approach and how the MST intervention, based on pre-existing grounds, has been designed and delivered.

The exploratory case study and interviews were all conducted by the first author between August and September 2020. The interviews lasted between 30 and 60 min for instructors and 45–70 min for SCs. Each interview (with all participants) was conducted in an informal, though private setting. This allowed the interviews to be structured in a way that enabled respondents to be guided, so that their observations and thoughts emerged but, at the same time, provided them with the flexibility to talk freely (Braun and Clarke, 2006).

All interviews were transcribed verbatim in Norwegian, before a reflexive thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006, 2019; Byrne, 2021) was conducted. After the final themes were actively generated, the translation process commenced taking extra steps to ensure the core meaning was transferred into English. This then enabled the other authors, as critical friends to review the content and offer constructive criticism on the themes identified (Smith and McGannon, 2018).

In this investigation, the first author enacted several roles: he is a former sniper, instructor, and Non-Commissioned Officer with over 20 years' experience soldiering in the Norwegian Armed Forces. He is also a performance psychologist in training, with a master's degree in applied coaching and currently undertaking a PhD education in applied performance psychology. The quality of the delivery was supported through the planning and execution process in the research team.

It is necessary to consider the potential for biases in relation to the present study (Levitt et al., 2017). The authors are interested in the potential of the psychological material utilized to improve the performance and wellbeing of the present set of sniper recruits—and potentially those that follow. As researchers, we are committed to analyze and present the data according to the intentions of the participants. However, as the first author makes his position clear in relation to the data and the participants, his subjectivity and the tensions that result from having a dual role in the present study are of note. Being both a practitioner interested in the efficacy of curriculum change, while also acting as a researcher designing the methodology and evaluating the evidence, can be viewed as a vital resource and asset as well as offering a potential confound (Gough and Madill, 2012; Braun and Clarke, 2019).

Reflecting this potential negative, several steps were taken to ensure methodological rigor and enhance trustworthiness. For example, member reflections, where respondents are allowed to read and comment upon either parts of the analysis or their interview transcripts, are often mentioned as the gold standard (Koelsch, 2013; Birt et al., 2016; Motulsky, 2021). The use of a long-term follow-up was another positive step in this direction.

We examined outcome scores, reactions from participants, and the perceptions of providers and used a 1-year follow-up to examine the extent to which the knowledge conveyed was useful in the field. For all qualitative data, the six phases of data analysis were conducted flexibly and systematically, allowing for lateral movement between stages (Braun and Clarke, 2019). In the first stage, the first author listened to each interview in its entirety on two occasions prior to commencing transcription. At this stage, cursory notes were recorded regarding salient details that occurred to the first author. These reflections were logged in a reflexive journal for the entirety of the study. In the second phase, the first author printed out interviews and placed them on a whiteboard, using marker pens to underline selected quotes and then coding them. Codes were then assembled into associated clusters. Based on each cluster, themes were generated as meanings became apparent across the data. Interestingly, both explicit and latent meanings were discovered which required that the respondents' intended meanings were considered against the first authors' impression of what was envisioned.

Table 8 presents an overview of the qualitative findings. First, and against our primary objective, it is important to recognize that the intervention showed positive outcome on all four measures used: quantitative data from the results, interviews with SCs, interviews with instructors, and the follow-up. Moreover, the SCs perceived MST as a valuable contribution to the course. Indeed, each SC pinpointed the type of situations in which he might use a certain mental skill, based on their individual approach and learning experience.

Looking at the data and compared against the most recent courses, a pass rate of 100% was accomplished in the 2020 version with MST integrated in the course. Extracting the shooting data only, the results are stable over the years (2016–2020), also when MST was included in the curriculum. When the significant component of fieldcraft is included, the comparable data (2016–2018) display a mean pass rate of m = 43.6 % on the course. There are too many variables in an uncontrolled environment (instructors, manual, and equipment changes) to draw any definite conclusions. However, shooting is a bio-mechanical skill which, if you practice enough, you get better at (Laaksonen et al., 2018). For a sniper, being able to perform this skill is of vital importance, but compared to sport-related shooting we would contend, with reference to Table 1, that the context is extreme. In the sniper course, the results pay tribute to the competency of the instructors in teaching their students. On the contrary, in fieldcraft and combined tests, where the instructors are not there to directly assist and teach, the SC has to rely more on their own decisions, related to self-confidence. The data can indicate the importance of the cognitive and metacognitive aspects (cf. Veenman et al., 2006), the requirement to think and perform under very high levels of pressure individually, is one area where the MST interventions have an impact as the SCs describe their developed performance under pressure. This can be explained by the fact that “Either you are capable of planning your actions ahead and task performance progresses smoothly, or you don't, and your actions go astray” (Veenman et al., 2006 p. 5). In addition, the SC's development of their own personal performance plan (DeWiggins et al., 2010) can enhance their metacognitive capacity. It is difficult to explain the exact patterns, based on the analysis it is a result of the context specific comprehensive MST approach rather than a single skill. For an operational sniper, the ability to maintain cognitive control cannot be overstated. Being able to make the right decision in extreme circumstances demands high levels of cognitive and decision-making skill: Each of the shots fired, or the shots not fired, requires to be justified (cf. Bar and Ben-Ari, 2005).

There is a clear pattern of how differently the snipers approach their own performance, enhancing the statement from Hamilton et al. (2020), that it is context-dependent. Furthermore, that each SC has their own method of approaching the challenges at hand. On the one hand, this could be directly linked to the philosophical approach of how MST was taught during the lectures, through the concept of developing adaptability (Ward et al., 2018). We explicitly focused on creating the building blocks to become experts in the field, focusing on teaching them the how and why of performance development, not just the what is or basic competencies (Cruickshank et al., 2020). Of course, this difference in approach could also be ascribed to the natural progression resulting from the course. However, based on the analysis, there seems to be a clear and positive relationship with what this cohort of snipers has been taught, how they developed themselves (Kolb, 2015), and how they increased their self-efficacy during this period (Bandura et al., 1999).

Based on the difference in prior military and MST experience among the SCs, it is natural that the ones with less experience have more to learn, and this can be describes as moving through stages on the novice-expertise continuum (Dreyfus and Dreyfus, 2005). Our claims for causation are reinforced by the fact that several SCs explain how they have had basic knowledge of the techniques from before but that, supplemented by the content of this course, they were able to build the skills into a system, more specifically their own system. This occurred even if they did not yet have the experience, or complete mastery of the mental skills.

Our approach, equipping them with the methods needed to become experts, is well supported by research (Cruickshank et al., 2020) and underlines the importance of a philosophical foundation to teaching these methods (Bardone and Bauters, 2017). Of course, since there were no control group, it is premature to draw any definite conclusions. However, based on the analysis, the large individual difference in what MSTs were used, and how participants contextualized it on this course shows promise toward creating a basis for teaching MST in this context.

Of relevance, each SC utilized different methods from MST and supporting instructor observations. Imagery, using the PETTLEP model (Holmes and Collins, 2001; Lu et al., 2020), was preferred among all SCs. In addition, diaphragmatic breathing (Ley, 1994) was stated as the most widely adopted and readily applicable MST covered. On the one hand, jumping to conclusions and extract imagery and breathing as optimal solutions and downgrade the other mental skills is a potential pitfall. As an example, the use of mindfulness-based approaches has a strong research base, also in the military (cf. Nassif et al., 2021). Based on the analysis, relaxation protocols (see Table 2) were not favored by the SCs in this context. At the same time that particular skill probably takes a longer time to learn and in an intensive sniper course, it is probably not the best place to measure outcomes. On the other hand, different relaxation protocols probably impact performance positively, if only through increased quality of rest and sleep. Based on the instructors' observations, supported by the SC's experiences, improvements in performance were perhaps due to more than just a single “skill”. It appears that a genuine change in mindset occurred, toward a combat mindset (cf. Boe et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2020) meaning one where participants can contrast perspectives and weigh up the optimum blend for each challenge, in the context of becoming a sniper, perhaps leaning toward achievement motivation, demonstrating a higher ability to perform (Nicholls, 1984). Following the ABC model “we don't see what it is: rather we see what we think it is” (Early and Grady, 2017, p. 43): This enabled the SC to actively make a choice on where to put effort regarding his performance. Interestingly, when the SCs experience doubt regarding their own capabilities, this leads to a downward spiral—degrading their performance and resulting in difficulty utilizing the mental skills they are familiar with but have not yet fully embedded. In contrast, and as a growing feature as the course progressed, SCs who act toward what they can influence, rather than ruminating and experiencing a dip in self- efficacy, are able to employ the mental skills more fully to be present in the moment, especially breathing (Ley, 1994). This in turn enables the SCs to maintain a higher degree of attentional control (Eysenck et al., 2007) and also retain a high level of “skilled intuition” (Cruickshank et al., 2020, p. 245), which is vital if decision-making is to be of a high standard in natural environments, following the recognition-primed decision (RPD) model (cf. Klein and Wright, 2016).

Finally, the follow-up data provide narrative evidence that learning has taken place, and skills were applied in an extreme setting and as described in the development of the interventions, namely “expertise equipped, rather than just competence equipped” (Cruickshank et al., 2020, p. 240). Self-talk was also put forth as developing confidence in wider aspects of life. Instructor comments supported the authors initial analysis and that MST has its place on a sniper course.

Of course, the study is not without its limitations. We have not used a control group, although comparisons to previous years on an almost identical course (minus the MST) do go some way toward addressing this. Similarly, much of the work is based on self-report data, and the expectancy effect of the interventions must be allowed for. However, triangulation of SC perceptions with performance data, instructor perceptions, and the delayed follow-up have hopefully gone some way to addressing this shortcoming. Furthermore, the relationships and challenges of working in pairs (cf. Orasanu et al., 2008) have not received any attention in this investigation. As a final note, the philosophy, pedagogy, and teaching MST in this course are not standard in the NAF, meaning the novelty of the interventions itself could have influenced their motivation and interest to perform. All these issues notwithstanding further research in this very challenging and unique context are certainly warranted.

Acknowledging that testing interventions in a real-world context is challenging, this is also where elite soldiers and operator's train and where the elite soldiers and operators are expected to perform are even more “in the wild” (Chamberlain et al., 2012). Therefore, the authors believe that conducting context and culturally specific case study research on a small, special population is important to move the field of performance psychology further (Ytterbøl et al., 2022).

The present investigation describes a relationship between the implementation of a mental skill training curriculum and subjective improvement in snipers' performance. Data on almost identical courses up until 2020 are outlined and provide an indication that the integration of a performance psychology package with MST could improve performance. This contention is unanimously supported by the instructor's observations. Furthermore, the SC's descriptions of the performance psychology package provide an insight into the previously intangibles of developing a form of “tactical wisdom”, individual strategies of performance and decision-making. Interestingly, but not necessarily surprisingly, we saw that both the philosophy and methods of delivery for MST play an important role. Perhaps the key takeaway is that this context and culturally specific and comprehensive MST intervention shows positive results on performance development. Furthermore, adding a well-planned performance psychology package could improve the overall learning process through increased awareness and space for individual applications of the skills taught. It is not to function as some sort of “magic potion” that solves all problems, and it should be a natural part of their training and education.

For the sniper candidates specifically, the introduction and implementation of MST provide a positive impact on all performance markers associated with this course. The follow-up indicates that they also learned and retained the skills developed well enough to function in combat situations. On the outcome scores of the course, no conclusions can be drawn but the results were positive in the 2020 intervention. Further quantitative performance and psychometric data, including a control group, are warranted to understand more about what the optimum intervention model can look like. However, the authors believe that our research presents a concept that can be implemented and developed further.

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by University of Central Lancashire BAHSS2 0111. General permission to conduct research on military personnel from the Norwegian Armed Forces has been granted, in addition to local permission from the Norwegian Army. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.