A popular approach in political and communication studies, framing theory attends to media’s capacity to influence how a given audience understands an issue. Goffman (1974) initially put framing theory forward in his book Frame Analysis, in which he suggests that framing occurs when an individual stresses a certain relevant aspect to define a situation. Entman (1993) carries this forward into an analysis of media framing, arguing that news agencies discover the potential causes and possible outcomes of a given issue, make moral judgements and cover the topic accordingly. Framing theory shows how highlighting and selecting specific aspects of an issue can augment framing effects, thereby making these aspects more prominent in a communication environment (Chong and Druckman, 2007; Entman, 2007).

A number of sports communication researchers have used framing theory to study how mass media and social media understand the Winter Olympic Games. Billings and Eastman (2003) examined how identities were framed in broadcasters’ announcements of the 2002 Winter Olympics. Misener (2013) analyzed how the legacy of the 2010 Vancouver Winter Paralympic Games was framed in the media. Oh et al. (2020) investigated the media framing of the unified Korean Olympic women’s ice hockey team in newspaper coverage and social media commentary. What is more, scholars have examined the framing of the Olympics with regard to social and political issues (Seippel et al., 2016; Pan and Lawal, 2017) such as environmental degradation (Yoon and Wilson, 2019), public protest (van Luijk and Frisby, 2012).

In China, mega sporting events have long been seen as an important way of strengthening national identity, stirring up patriotism among its citizens, enhancing its international standing, and projecting an image of unity and modernity abroad (Chen, 2012; Chu, 2018). After the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, which successfully altered China’s international image (Chung and Woo, 2011), China has continuously hosted the Asian Games, Summer Universiade, and Youth Olympic Games. The Chinese government’s next goal is to host a successful Winter Olympics.

Since the first Winter Olympics in 1924, the games have grown exponentially, becoming one of the most influential competitions in the world (Chappelet, 2002). In November 2013, the Chinese Olympic Committee formally nominated Beijing as a bidding city for the 2022 Winter Olympics. In 2015, after 2 years of preparation, Beijing was selected to host the XXIV Olympic Winter Games, becoming the first city to put on both the Summer and Winter Games. The Chinese government attaches great importance to the preparations for Beijing 2022. In March 2019, the State Council and Central Committee of the General Office of the Communist Party of China (CPC) issued a report, ‘Opinions on Developing Snow and Ice Sport as an Opportunity for Beijing 2022’ (Xinhua News Agency, 2019), which further emphasized the significance of the event. Additionally, Xi Jinping has given the Beijing Winter Olympics a distinctly personal touch. According to media reports, Xi is an avid sports fan and enjoys winter sports in particular (Danson, 2019; Huaxia, 2020). The 2022 Winter Olympics therefore promises to be among the landmark events of his presidency.

Launched by Sina Corporation in August 2009, Weibo is the only vibrant micro-blogging platform in China, with more than 553 million users in the first quarter of 2021 (Guancha Syndicate, 2021). Although Weibo began as a Chinese equivalent of Twitter, it has since incorporated several features that resemble Facebook. Weibo offers great visibility and extensive news coverage. Accordingly, it is the most influential platform in China for discussing popular news and public issues (Huang and Sun, 2014; Rauchfleisch and Schäfer, 2015).

Given the growing importance of social media in media coverage and the formation of public opinion, in 2014 the CPC leadership released a memorandum promoting media convergence and the digitalization of mainstream media. It should be pointed out that in China mainstream news organizations are certified by the government, for they are crucial for consolidating the CPC’s political power (Daniela and Mary, 2011; Qin et al., 2018). After 2014, mainstream media began establishing a large number of Weibo accounts to publish news and attract readers. According to the ‘Weibo User Development Report’ of 2020, it had 38,000 verified mainstream media accounts by the end of the year (Weibo, 2021). In the light of the mainstream media’s great influence on Weibo, we set out to establish which frames were prominent in mainstream news media coverage of Beijing 2022 on Weibo during the pre-Olympic period.

In recent years, researchers have become increasingly interested in using social media as a meter of public opinion. Despite there being some drawbacks to deriving public opinion from social media, many researchers have demonstrated that social media data are a strong indicator of how publics perceived certain issues (Anstead and O’Loughlin, 2015; Choi and Lee, 2017; Neubaum and Krämer, 2017). Some scholars have extracted Weibo data to explore public opinion in China. Despite the existence of censorship and deletion measures on Chinese social media (Rauchfleisch and Schäfer, 2015), they argue, the Chinese government allows online debate on public affairs, permitting users to respond to government policies as long as online debates do not catalyze collective action (King et al., 2017). In comparing several Chinese social media, Stockmann and Luo (2017) concluded that Weibo may have the greatest potential to facilitate online discourse on a particular topic. Another group of researchers (Li et al., 2019) analyzed Weibo data to summarize public opinion regarding public transportation problems in China and proposed improvement measures. Still another (Han et al., 2020) examined Chinese public opinion during the first stages of COVID-19, finding that Weibo texts were an accurate and feasible means through which to do so. Very few studies have used Weibo data to study public opinions about mega sporting events, however. Accordingly, alongside our framing analysis of mainstream media, we aim to identify prominent frames in public discussions of Beijing 2022 on Weibo during the run-up to the Olympics.

Sentiment analysis (which attends to people’s perspectives, evaluations, attitudes, and emotions) is among the most active areas of research in natural language processing. Having expanded beyond computer science to the social sciences, this research method is now essential to understanding public opinion. Social media has made it possible for millions of people to share their emotions and attitudes on online social networks, leading to an explosion in the volume of relevant data. Using sentiment analysis to examine these data allows researchers to learn about public attitudes and social trends (Di et al., 2014).

Analyzing sentiments on Weibo has become increasingly important in academic study. A number of scholars have developed research methods to examine sentiments in Weibo, including using deep neural networks (Wan, 2019) and latent Dirichlet models (Yonggan et al., 2016). Weibo posts have also been used to examine public sentiments regarding public affairs such as Hong Kong’s ‘Occupy Central’ movement (Luo and Zhai, 2017); stock market fluctuations (Chen et al., 2016); how incidents are monitored following disasters (Bai and Yu, 2016); and debates over traditional Chinese medicine (Shen et al., 2015). Few studies, however, analyze the sentiments surrounding mega sporting events. In view of this, we examine the sentiments expressed concerning Beijing 2022 in the pre-Olympic period.

To understand the frames embedded in news media and public posts, we collected content posted on Weibo in the year leading up to the opening of Beijing 2022. Given that the one-year countdown to the games began on 4 February 2021, we gathered data between 4 January and 28 February 2021. Many milestone events and celebrations were held to usher in Beijing 2022 in and around these 2 months. For instance, Beijing 2022 sports pictograms were released; the games’ competition venues were all completed and unveiled; the torch was released at a celebration marking the beginning of the one-year countdown; and test events for domestic athletes was held. These events received extensive media coverage and public attention, producing an abundance of social media data.

We employed a web crawler to collect posts on Weibo. Specifically, data was collected in the following steps. First, to identify posts, we conducted searches in Chinese for the keywords ‘Beijing 2022 Winter Olympic Games’ (北京2022年冬奥会) and ‘Beijing Winter Olympic Games’ (北京冬奥会). The posts’ content, account name, release time, account type, and other publicly visible information were collected. Second, to accurately represent the public discourse, posts from government agencies, enterprises, news media, and other organizational users were excluded. 9,439 posts from individual accounts were retained as the sample. Third, we conducted searches on Weibo for news media accounts that met the following three criteria: Chinese central government-controlled media; mainstream media in Beijing, the games’ host city; and Chinese professional sports media. Our list was filtered and supplemented by ten professional sport journalists with at least 5 years’ experience in China. Finally, we chose 23 influential news media accounts from which to collect content, and reused the keywords used in the first step to gather relevant content.¹ This process eventually produced a sample of 450 Weibo posts.

Four frames emerged from the public opinion expressed concerning Beijing 2022. The first frame, which was articulated in most of the posts (n = 3,640, 38.56%) we analyzed, referred to Beijing 2022 promotional activities involving entertainment stars. Many pop stars attended the numerous events held to celebrate there being just 1 year left to the games. The countdown coincided with the Chinese Lunar New Year, the most important traditional festival in China. Several singers performed Olympic-themed songs on China’s most-watched television program, China Central Television (CCTV) Spring Festival Gala. The show garnered huge popularity, as one of the individual Weibo posts we analyzed makes clear:

The second frame expressed by the public (n = 2,820, 29.87%) is attitude towards Beijing 2022. Most Chinese ‘netizens’ eagerly anticipated that games, using words such as ‘encouragement’, ‘reunion’, ‘dreams’, ‘celebration’, and ‘complete success’ to express their enthusiasm. One post reads: ‘Looking forward to Beijing 2022, for dreams and faith! Fight for honor, cheer for yourself! We await Beijing 2022 together!’

Some individual users, however, expressed critical views of Beijing 2022. In their opinion, winter sports are not popular in China, especially in the south, and ensuring that the entire nation benefits from Beijing 2022 will be a challenge. A few users argued that China no longer needed to hold sporting events to demonstrate national strength and enhance its status; it would be better to spend those funds on improving people’s livelihoods instead.

The third frame consisted of public discussions (n = 2,457, 26.03%) about the preparatory work for Beijing 2022. The public mostly focused on the milestones leading up to Beijing 2022 that were relevant to them personally, such as the recruitment of volunteers and opening of the Beijing-Zhangjiakou high-speed rail line. For instance, in one post a user wrote: ‘I want to be a volunteer for Beijing 2022. I hope my dream comes true, wish me luck’.

Finally, many users (n = 522, 5.53%) also discussed the Olympic partners of Beijing 2022. For many companies, social media have become an important platform on which to promote their products and enhance their brand value (Ashley and Tracy, 2015). Olympic partners took advantage of the beginning of the 1-year countdown to Beijing 2022 to launch marketing campaigns that attracted the attention of many consumers.

Four frames were extracted from the 14 news media topics: preparation work, political issues, COVID-19, and media attitudes. The first frame (n = 194, 43.11%) was preparation work for Beijing 2022. Although this frame was present in posts by individual accounts too, they expressed different concerns about the events in question. Media outlets focused on Beijing 2022 milestone events and the construction of basic facilities, as represented in the following quote: ‘Tonight, the torch of Beijing 2022–‘Flying’ was officially released. Its overall design echoes that of the torch tower at the opening of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games’.

Moreover, words such as ‘sprint’, ‘enthusiasm’, and ‘go all out’ frequently appeared in this frame, reflecting the media’s confidence in the success of Beijing 2022.

The second frame (n = 129, 28.67%) that emerged from the data was political issues. In this frame, words such as ‘Xi Jinping’, ‘president’, ‘General Secretary’, ‘regulations’, ‘Central and Eastern Europe’, and ‘coordination’, were used to highlight the importance of the Chinese government and its diplomatic activities in relation to Beijing 2022. During the key stage of the preparations for Beijing 2022—between 18 and 20 January 2021—Xi Jinping, general secretary of the CPC, visited competition venues in Beijing and Hebei. The purpose of his visit was to assess how preparations were going. This news was extensively reported. Consider the following Weibo post:

The third frame (n = 70, 15.56%) was COVID-19; relevant words included ‘coronavirus’, ‘pandemic’, and ‘vaccine’. This frame encompassed three kinds of content. The first is content related to how Beijing 2022 was being prepared during a pandemic. Additionally, the media reported on the National Health Commission’s response to the measures being implemented to control the pandemic in the context of Beijing 2022. The cooperation between China and international organizations (especially the International Olympic Committee) in fighting the virus also attracted the media’s attention. The president of the International Olympic Committee, Thomas Bach, said that ‘China has performed well in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the International Olympic Committee is full of confidence in the success of Beijing 2022’.

The fourth frame (n = 57, 12.66%) was media attitudes. The news media’s attitudes towards Beijing 2022 are most prominently articulated through editorials, which are particularly expansive in terms of expression. The media revealed its attitude by using phrases such as ‘a powerful country’, ‘smooth development’, ‘the whole world’, and ‘full of confidence’. As the literature points out, Chinese media is largely a mouthpiece of the government. It is therefore logical that their coverage is consistent with the government’s stance on major issues.

In summary, a comparison of the frames that emerged from individual users and news media accounts revealed that both groups discussed the preparations for Beijing 2022 and milestones that led to the opening of the games. Among individual accounts, Weibo users were more inclined to discuss content related to entertainment stars. In contrast, entertainment stars rarely appeared in the news media. The vast majority of media reports focused on preparation work and political content, topics that were not significant in personal accounts.

In undertaking a sentiment analysis of 9,439 personal and 450 news organization Weibo posts, we found that the majority of posts in both categories expressed positive sentiments. Whereas 70.20% of personal accounts were positive, the figure is 84.66% for media accounts. The emotions articulated in media accounts (which represent official ideologies) were more positive, as compared with personal accounts (Table 3).

The positive sentiments found in personal accounts arose from the fact that a large number of fans expressed support for the popular idols who participated in promotion campaigns for Beijing 2022. The news media’s high degree of positivity was indicated by its coverage of how national leaders’ approved the preparations for Beijing 2022. Additionally, news about Chinese athletes’ hard work and preparations for the games also accounted for a large proportion of positive statements. Of the three sentiments, neutrality was the least prominent. Whether in public posts or new media, this emotion was primarily expressed in factually supported statements.

The negative sentiments expressed in the news media had to do with some winter sports being postponed or cancelled. Some of these competitions were warm-up matches to be held ahead of Beijing 2022 or qualifying competitions for the Winter Olympics. The postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games also raised concerns about whether Beijing 2022 could be conducted on schedule. The negative sentiments expressed by the public had more diverse sources. Some negative statements suggested that Beijing 2022 may not positively impact people’s lives and could disrupt the natural environment. Individual users also responded negatively to calls to boycott Beijing 2022 in some Western countries.

This research on how Beijing 2022 was framed in media and public opinion on Weibo has produced findings that enhance our understanding of the Chinese people and media’s opinions of mega sporting events. Interestingly, our results revealed that public discussion regarding Beijing 2022 differs significantly from how it was covered in the media. The extent to which the news media set the agenda for public opinion seems to be waning.

Entertainment stars have become the most prominent topic of discussion among personal accounts. A number of well-known Chinese entertainment stars – including Xiao Zhan, Wang Jiaer, Yang Mi, Yang Zi, and Meng Meiqi – were mentioned many times. Promotional campaigns mounted by these pop stars, such as the Spring Festival Gala and the release of Winter Olympic songs, also received great attention from admirers. This study also corroborates Figuera and Nieto (2018) findings, which suggest that content related to entertainers and fans accounted for a large percentage of social media engagement during the Pyeongchang 2018 Winter Olympics.

The most discussed topics on news media were political issues. This finding makes sense because the Chinese media, as the mouthpiece of the CPC, is a tool of regime legitimization and effective rule (Daniela and Mary, 2011; Qin et al., 2018). When it came to political issues, the terms ‘Xi Jin Ping’, ‘General Secretary’, and ‘Chairman’ were used frequently. Xi Jinping regards Beijing 2022 as a landmark event, which endows Beijing 2022 with his personal characteristics. This is in line with his media image as an avid sport enthusiast (Danson, 2019; Huaxia, 2020). Words such as ‘strong’, ‘powerful’, ‘people’, and ‘full of confidence’ were frequently mentioned among media outlets. Our results confirm those of previous studies to the effect that China uses international sporting events to enhance its national identity and establish its authority (Chen, 2012; Chu, 2018). The COVID-19 pandemic is another focus of attention in the media accounts. The word ‘vaccines’ appear frequently in media reports, indicating that China has adopted an effective plan to combat the pandemic and ensure that Beijing 2022 proceeds smoothly.

Although we found that the public and the media’s positions were relatively consonant when it came the preparation work, the specific issues of concern are different. Individual accounts tend to focus more on personal events, such as volunteer recruitment activities. The official media continued the consistent grand narrative for mega-event, covering topics such as test games, the production of ice and snow in venues, and infrastructure construction, but lack of coverage of how Beijing 2022 affects individuals. Such a reporting strategy formed a separation between official propaganda and public opinion on the affairs of the Beijing 2022. It is difficult for ordinary people to resonate with official reports. Additionally, the finding of personal accounts critical of the Beijing 2022 echoed previous research (Rauchfleisch and Schäfer, 2015; King et al., 2017), providing further evidence that the Chinese government allows public criticism on certain issues on social media, such as sports.

This study reveals sentiments concerning Beijing 2022 among individuals and news media. The Chinese public and media have generally expressed positive attitudes towards the event. The results indicate that Chinese people are still very enthusiastic about mega sporting events and hope to perpetuate the fame of the 2008 Beijing Olympics. The support for Beijing 2022 in China contrasts with the opposition to mega sporting events in other countries. Some Western cities even withdrew their bids to host the Olympic Games following strong public opposition (Kassens-Noor and Lauermann, 2018; Paulsson and Alm, 2020). That said, it is important to acknowledge the negative sentiments expressed in the data. These concerned a range of public affairs, including the waste of public funds, damage to the environment, and the spread of COVID-19.