Sounds and visual elements are interdependent in urban environments. In particular, individual perceptions about them tend to vary with socio-demographics and housing location characteristics concerning the neighbourhood and urban services (Sun et al., 2018a). However, most applied research on this subject has gravitated towards the idea of controlling noise annoyance by reducing sound pressure levels to enhance well-being (EEA, 2020). Beyond the noise abatement approach, it has been highlighted that audio-visual elements may be subjectively measured to identify improvements in urban settings (Hasegawa and Lau, 2022). This requires the collection of individual perceptions on site, but implementing a methodology to control the stimuli, and collect information from multiple locations at a time, represents an experimental challenge (Tarlao et al., 2021). Moreover, integrating complex path models for exploring the influence of objective attributes amongst subjective factors also requires sophisticated analytical modelling tools (Lionello et al., 2020).

Regarding the study of sounds in the urban environment, the soundscape series of ISO (2014) provides a conceptual framework for acoustic and sound-related research. A growing number of auditory factors are revealed in the literature (i.e., noise annoyance, pleasantness and eventfulness) and used to evaluate the conditions of the acoustic environment (Aletta et al., 2016). Traditionally, experiments designed to analyse residential selection have aimed to discover the influences between noise-sensitivity and noise-annoyance, using socio-demographic characteristics as mediation factors (Miedema and Vos, 2003; Van Kamp et al., 2004; Nijland et al., 2007). However, there has been recent interest in the analysis of auditory factors (e.g., pleasantness and eventfulness) and person-related attributes (noise annoyance) in a residential context, as well as using mediating pathways concerning socio-demographic characteristics (Tarlao et al., 2021).

The evidence reviewed about the perception of visual factors studies have demonstrated its association with numerous concepts such as liveability, satisfaction, and happiness (Ahmed and El-Halafawy, 2019). These concepts play a crucial role when studying the enhancement of the residential environment (Kovacs-Györi et al., 2019). Mouratidis and Yiannakou (2022) recently asked what makes cities liveable and explored how objective and subjective measures may be used to assess the liveability conditions of a place. These measures tend to differ according to the world’s regions because citizens and societies have different wealth and degrees of accessibility to public services (UN, 2022). Thus, urban liveability conditions have become an important topic to be subjectively investigated as a qualifying factor, as well as to be objectively measured. However, in the Latin American region, only a few studies have attempted to capture measures of subjective indicators such as liveability (i.e., by responding to survey questions where audio-visual stimuli are reproduced on the senses of participants), for subsequent interpretation using other perceptual factors (Kogan et al., 2017; Rey-Gozalo et al., 2018).

A systematic process to interpret the relationships amongst the perceptual factors and their corresponding indicators has required the application of sophisticated analytical tools, including advanced machine learning techniques, but the focus has been on the use of multivariate techniques such as the Structural Equation Models (SEM) approach. Applied complex models using SEM have involved perceptual factors of interest (i.e., auditory and visual factors), and include mediating effects through the specification of quantitative attributes (Hong and Jeon, 2015; Liu et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2021). However, we are not aware of prior statistical estimations using a combined specification between Pleasantness and Liveability in a residential environment, when exploring direct and indirect effects amongst objective attributes.

This study explores the relationships between three latent variables (i.e., noise-Sensitivity, sound-Pleasantness and visual-Liveability) based on experimental conditions in a selection of residential environments. For this, audio-visual stimuli were recorded in widely dispersed residential locations selected to match different configurations of attributes defined under an efficient experimental design. Audio-visual stimuli were reproduced using immersive devices (360°-format video and immersive sound) and applied to a sample of household heads, collecting perceptual indicators about their residential locations using a digitally assisted survey format. Finally, SEM was estimated to understand the behaviour of the latent variables when modifying quantitative measures of visual and acoustic attributes, socio-demographics and housing location characteristics.

The rest of the paper is organised as follows. The second section briefly reviews our theoretical auditory and visual factor evaluation framework. The third section describes the hypothesis statements and the survey design process methodology. The fourth section contains modelling results for an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), SEM structure and subsequent mediation analysis. The fifth section presents a discussion, and the sixth summarises our main conclusions.

In terms of evaluating the acoustic environment, urban studies have traditionally been concerned with assessing perceptions such as noise-annoyance (Tillema et al., 2012). However, several auditory indicators have emerged as a part of the soundscape concept, providing a broader understanding of improvements in acoustic environments in residential settings (Aletta et al., 2016). There is a growing body of literature using this framework to investigate how contextual indicators (person-related characteristics and non-auditory contextual indicators) influence both auditory indicators (i.e., perceived sources and sound indicators) and soundscape factors (Hong and Jeon, 2015; Liu et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2021; Hasegawa and Lau, 2022). The notion of auditory factors, especially pleasantness, has “proved particularly relevant to assess the quality of the sound environment” (Aumond et al., 2017, pp. 431). The literature highlights the study of pleasantness based on the selection of a number of auditory indices defined in the Circumplex Model of soundscape perception (Axelsson et al., 2010). The model uses four bipolar factors that can be synthesised by specifying two latent constructs, Pleasantness and Eventfulness (two main orthogonal factors). Aletta et al. (2016) suggest that the former is the main factor analysed in soundscape studies, and several indicators focused attention on its identification, such as agitating-calm, interesting, pleasant–unpleasant, appropriateness, harmonious and comfortable–uncomfortable.

In addition, a growing literature has looked at liveability (Campbell et al., 1976; Van Kamp et al., 2003), although we are not aware of previous modelling approaches selecting subjective indices to analyse it. In European cities, liveability has been associated with indices measuring the quality of life (Marans, 2012; Okulicz-Kozaryn and Valente, 2019). However, Mouratidis and Yiannakou (2022) argue that “liveability can be assessed in a subjective way,” if the term is understood and measured as visual perception (Veenhoven, 2000; Rossetti et al., 2019; Türkoğlu et al., 2019; Ramírez et al., 2021). On the other hand, Ahmed and El-Halafawy (2019) suggested that the perception of visual factors may be associated with concepts such as liveability, satisfaction and well-being. So, these concepts may play a crucial role when studying enhancements to the residential environment (Kovacs-Györi et al., 2019).

Several approaches have used SEM to discover relationships between pleasantness and eventfulness but also specify visual constructs such as satisfaction and visual quality (Mouratidis, 2020; Mouratidis and Yiannakou, 2022). However, to the best of our knowledge, none has examined and quantified the relationship between Pleasantness and Liveability, and only a theoretical framework has been developed (Aulia, 2016; Amir et al., 2021). This lack of knowledge is even more notorious in the Latin American context, as only a few studies have attempted to conceptualise multidimensional sensory indicators when exploring residential environments (Kogan et al., 2017, 2018; Rey-Gozalo and Barrigón-Morillas, 2017; Rey-Gozalo et al., 2018).

From a methodological perspective, experiments conducted to evaluate the conditions of the urban environment highlight the importance of determining the roles of audio-visual attributes and their effects on individual perceptions (Hong et al., 2020; Yong et al., 2021). The variation of sound and visual–spatial metrics stimulates different feelings in people, and their relationship may enhance well-being in residential environments (Hasegawa and Lau, 2022). However, it is complex to recreate different urban configurations to evaluate audio-visual conditions in an experimental setting with appropriate trade-off levels (Ortega et al., 2020; Ramírez et al., 2021). Recently, access to new technological tools has facilitated the recording and reproduction of visual features (i.e., people and vehicles, green spaces and the built environment) in terms of dynamics, position in space, dimensions and even colours (Puyana-Romero et al., 2016; Arellana et al., 2020). In particular, the use of immersive environments and digital format questionnaires has allowed a more significant number of scenarios to be assessed, allowing for a larger number of data points to be collected simultaneously. However, beyond the overall flexibility provided by these technological tools for survey implementation, some other issues need to be addressed, such as the reproduction length of the experiment, when audio-visual stimuli are projected on the senses of participants and the way to capture the responses. An inadequate method for experimental reproduction can lead to boredom, fatigue, and a high cognitive load on respondents (Heggie et al., 2019).

This section describes the characteristics of the participants in the study, the survey design and the statistical tools used to analyse the data.

The results are presented in five sections: (1) a descriptive statistical analysis of collected indicators; (2) the EFA to extract principal factors; (3) the CFA to examine the reliability and validity of latent variables; (4) the SEM to describe the relationships amongst the latent constructs; (5) and the mediation analysis to estimate the influence of observable variables on the latent constructs.

This study provides new insights to identify the influence of household heads’ socio-demographic and housing location characteristics on their auditory and visual perceptions when selecting a residential environment. Previous knowledge especially that developed in the Latin American region, has provided limited evidence about the relationships between person-related attributes (i.e., noise annoyance), auditory and indirect visual factors in the residential context (Kogan et al., 2017; Rey-Gozalo et al., 2018). Our study also considers four relationships between auditory and visual perceptions in a residential setting. This is done by looking at the direct and indirect effects between objective attributes and the participants’ own personal traits.

The results of the SEM model show first, a significant negative relationship between noise sensitivity and sound pleasantness, and, indirectly, with visual liveability. This means that household heads who reported higher noise-Sensitivity also rated the sounds reproduced in the selected residential locations as less pleasant, in line with the result described by Tarlao et al. (2021). Also, participants are susceptible to a broader range of positive latent constructs and are not only associated with noise-annoyance as was found in previous studies (Fyhri and Klæboe, 2009; Ryu and Jeon, 2011). The examination of the direct influence of the objective sonic measures on sound-Pleasantness revealed a significant negative relationship with the values of the acoustic parameters L_Aeq,60s, L_Ceq,60s, and the percentile difference between L_A10 and L_A90. These influences could be compared with those recently described by Yong et al. (2021), except for the A-weighted SPL, and highlight the adequate association of sonic parameters on psychoacoustics descriptors as carriers of information when studying the enhancement of urban places.

Our study also demonstrates a second positive significant relationship between sound-Pleasantness and visual-Liveability in a Latin American context. Interestingly, in residential conditions, the direct effect of Pedestrian flow on visual-Liveability revealed a negative influence of this observable variable on the construct, differing from other studies where the presence of people in public spaces had been reported as a positive characteristic (Iglesias et al., 2013; Puyana-Romero et al., 2016), albeit from a safety point of view in the first case. It is possible that the negative sign was motivated by the restrictions on mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic, as people were warned to avoid crowds. Considering other visual components, we observed a positive relationship between Vehicle-flow, Green spaces and visual-Liveability in the residential context, and these results are in line with those described by Yong et al. (2021). In contrast, note that being close to commercial land use negatively influences visual-Liveability. In other words, the perception of Liveability differs amongst family heads because they are heterogeneous in terms of their socio-demographic and location attributes.

Based on the parameters estimated by the SEM model, which include a mediation analysis to assess direct effects and total effects loadings, our results reveal the relationships between socio-demographic characteristics of households heads and their perceptions of noise-Sensitivity, sound-Pleasantness and visual-Livability. The direct effect showed a negative influence between socio-demographics and noise-Sensitivity. Consistent with van Kamp et al. (2004), we found that the influence of socio-demographic characteristics on noise-Sensitivity varies significantly in the population under study. Family heads reported greater sensitivity if their education, employment and income status were higher. Thus, this study extends several patterns for noise-Sensitivity and auditory factors in a Latin American country. The direct effect estimates are influenced by age and gender. For example, respondents over 65 declared high sensitivity and perceived sounds as less pleasant than adults or young individuals. The model also suggests that older people rated sound-Pleasantness and visual-Liveability lower than younger people due to their noise-Sensitivity. Additionally, regarding gender, on average men in Quito perceive the residential environment as less pleasant and less liveable than women.

The last relationships concern the analysis of direct and total effects using the mediation analysis. Our results indicate that the household dwelling location and proximity to land uses and activities influence the latent constructs. This finding suggests a significant heterogeneity amongst households located in Quito’s main districts. For example, households located in the centre and north of the city reported a negative impact on both sound-Pleasantness and visual-Liveability compared to those living in the south. These findings suggest that families living in these zones could be affected by the higher sound pressure level exposure in those areas, especially for households located in the centre of Quito, which has much higher commercial activity. In this line, Arellana et al. (2019) have also argued that perceptions vary according to the residential location of the respondents.

This research provides evidence about the influence of explanatory variables such as auditory–visual components, socio-demographics and residential location characteristics on three latent constructs in a residential location context. Using the SEM model estimates and the mediation analysis, we found a negative correlation between noise-Sensitivity and sound-Pleasantness, and a positive relationship between sound-Pleasantness and visual-Liveability. Note that a limitation of this study is that we considered only sound-Pleasantness whilst keeping a parsimony criterion of the model structure. Future research should include eventfulness and pleasantness analysis in the Latin American context.

The findings reported in this paper complement the understanding of complex relationships described in the literature on the knowledge gap between the perception of sound-visual components with the added value of being assessed in the residential context of Latin American cities. Therefore, this study calls for a more holistic understanding of the perception of sound and visual attributes of residential environments rather than just independently assessing auditory perceptions, traditionally noise-annoyance, and other visual concepts associated with livability when studying improvements to the residential environment.

The estimations of parameters calculated from path regressions using SEM demonstrated the influences of the mediation analysis. The estimation of the direct effect showed that noise-Sensitivity correlates negatively with socio-demographics such as gender, age, education, employment and income status. The estimations calculated of the total effects provided a better understanding of when sound-Pleasantness mediates under the specification of the set of acoustic measures, such as the A-weighted SPL, the equivalent C-weighted SPL and percentiles L₁₀–L₉₀. Complementarily, estimates of the total effects calculated from the visual-Liveability path specification showed a heterogeneous variation across households according to their residential location in Quito’s main districts (North, Centre and South).

Our methodology adds evidence in favour of future research using digital surveys containing 360° video and immersive sound reproduction and the application of perceptual questionnaires to capture perceptions of audio-visual attributes of residential environments. This alternative approach to administrating the experiment stimulated participants’ senses with a high level of reality and offered portability advantages for conducting the survey. These improvements allowed participants to reproduce the experiment under home conditions and evaluate multiple residential environments. The overall flexibility of the implemented methodology provided adequate conditions for experimental replicability.

Our prior statistical estimations support the idea of complementing the study of audio-visual perceptions using advanced econometric theory. Therefore, the collected information on stated preferences is appropriate as an analytical tool for analysing residential location preferences considering sound and visual factors and attributes. Thus, using advanced hybrid discrete choice models, the willingness-to-pay measures are estimated considering environmental improvements, such as noise reduction or enhanced urban amenities. Hence, the authors of this study are currently working on this line of research.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study involving human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent to participate in this study was not required from the participants in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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