Regarding language skills, researchers have focused on improving learners' speaking, writing and vocabulary skills more. This shows that researchers are more concerned with the improvement of learners' skills related to language output. Researchers who reviewed studies on technology-supported language learning from 2014 to 2019 came to the same conclusion (Shadiev and Yang, 2020). However, the present study showed that reading skills received the least attention, while previous studies noted that grammar skills received less attention. This revealed that researchers are now beginning to pay more attention to previously neglected skills and are beginning to focus on the role of technology-supported language learning in facilitating learners' grammar skills. For example, Lai (2017) noted that grammar skills improved when learners completed activities to create vocabulary lists and greeting cards using multimedia resources. Jung et al. (2019) noted that students' grammar skills improved as they corrected each other's pronunciation and grammatical errors through video chat. Jamalai and Krish (2021) found that students' grammar skills improved through online forum discussions and knowledge sharing.

In terms of 21st century skills, communication and collaboration have received the most attention from researchers. It is probably because the 21st century society is more globalized and along with the increased complexity of related work, interpersonal communication and cooperation are being enhanced. The 21st century society emphasizes teamwork skills, and therefore scholars focus on collaborative and communication skills. Problem-solving skills have received little attention, and no researcher focused on career and life skills. In the face of the evolving and changing society of the future, problem-solving skills are among the core 21st century skills, emphasizing learners' ability to define problems, think critically, and solve problems. For example, scholars in reviewed studies have focused on learners' problem-solving skills in virtual technology-supported language learning (Chen et al., 2021).

Based on the results, this study has several recommendations for educators and researchers. First, input skills are an important component of language skills and an indispensable way for learners to develop output skills (Harmer, 2007). The present study suggests that researchers can focus on learners' input skills supported by technology, such as listening and reading. Second, problem-solving skills and career and life skills also deserve attention; therefore, future studies try to explore the effects of technology-supported language learning on these skills.

The most commonly used instructional design theory in reviewed studies was social constructivism theory. The results of this research are consistent with those of previous review studies of technology-supported language learning (Parmaxi and Zaphiris, 2017). According to this theory (Vygotsky, 1978), knowledge is not a set of “facts” but rather a synthesis of information that is actively constructed and evolving in the learner's mind. The teacher does not “give” knowledge to the learner, but the learner should acquire knowledge actively. Learners' knowledge evolves as they process old and new information, as well as their experiences. The researchers designed collaborative, creative, and communicative activities based on a social constructivism perspective to encourage learners to input the target language and output the target language in a meaningful context. At the same time, researchers have used various learning and teaching activities to promote students' collaboration, communication, creativity, critical thinking and digital literacy skills (Yang et al., 2013, 2014, 2022; Lai, 2017; Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou, 2017; Huang, 2021).

Other researchers have also used theories based on learner-centered pedagogies such as problem-based or project-based theories. These pedagogies are all used to promote student-directed learning, adaptive learning, and personalized assessment. Learning theories were used to design activities that provided learners with opportunities for language input and output, e.g., to learn new knowledge and then apply it to the real world by creating own content. This allows learners to acquire language skills and develop 21st century skills such as communication, collaboration, and problem solving (Arnó-Macià and Rueda-Ramos, 2011; Yang et al., 2013, 2014; Srebnaja and Stavicka, 2018).

Researchers have also designed learning activities based on theories related to foreign language learning, such as task-based language teaching, content-based instruction, and output-input theory. For example, digital story creation activities and integrated cross-cultural communication activities designed by the researcher are in line with these theoretical perspectives, in which learners have access to the target language through social tools and partner communication. The ability to use creative and collaborative tools to complete target-language based tasks also contributes to the acquisition of language skills and 21st century skills development, such as social and cross-cultural interaction, communication skills (Lewis and Schneider, 2015; Tseng, 2017).

Since language learning is closely related to culture, scholars have designed foreign language courses based on cross-cultural communication, where learners acquired both language skills and cultural knowledge. Further, there are theories that have been used by scholars to assess and measure learners' outcomes. For example, researchers have focused on learners' intercultural competence along with their language skills and utilized the Byram' ICC model and the developmental model of intercultural sensitivity to measure their cross-cultural knowledge acquisition and skills development (Bennett, 1986; Byram, 1997). In addition, the Keller' ARCS motivational model (Keller, 1987) has been used by researchers to measure learners' perceived attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction in technology-supported language learning environments.

This review analyzed the theoretical foundation that was used by those few studies that focused on non-English languages such as Chinese, Ukrainian, Japanese, and Spanish. This review found that learning theories used by scholars in these studies were diverse. They were related to instructional design (e.g., social constructivism), language learning (e.g., language output and input), and cross-cultural learning (e.g., intercultural sensitivity).

Based on the findings, several suggestions for educators and researchers are proposed. First, the theories mentioned by researchers are instruction-related theories, language learning-related theories, and measurement-related theories; they were used to guide the design of technology-supported language learning activities that focus both on the acquisition of language skills and on the 21st century skills. These theories can be useful to inform the design of appropriate language learning activities for educators and researchers in the future. Second, this review found that many researchers did not indicate what theories were used in their studies. Theoretical foundations are important for the instructional design, language learning or measuring activities, so such information should be clearly indicated so that other researchers can gain a deeper understanding of them.

Based on the literature review, this study grouped technologies into eight categories based on their functions: (1) collaborative tools (e.g., Google Docs or Padlet) for supporting learners to collaborate on a task through co-editing and information sharing; (2) social tools (e.g., Facebook or Skype) for supporting learners to communicate and share content remotely or synchronously using text, audio and video; (3) creative tools (e.g., Photo Story or Adobe Spark) to support learners in creating work, such as digital stories or videos; (4) learning management system (e.g., Moodle) to integrate learning activities and learning resources for adaptive online learning; (5) classroom interaction tools (e.g., Quizlet or Kahoot) to support question-answering, polling, and other activities in the classroom; (6) multimedia materials are some audio and video resources on the web or multimedia textbooks; (7) presentation tools (e.g., PowerPoint) are used to support learners to present their learning content digitally; (8) wearable devices (e.g., Google Glass) to support learners to view or interact with content in virtual reality learning environments.

Facebook (social tool), Google Docs (collaboration tool), and Moodle technologies (learning management system) were used the most in previous studies to facilitate language and 21st century skills. The study further analyzed which technologies are most often used by researchers to promote 21st century skills. Appendix 8 demonstrates these most commonly used tools. The study found that Facebook (social tool), Google Docs (collaboration tool) and Moodle (learning management system) were also the tools most often used by researchers to promote communication, collaboration and critical thinking, social and cross-cultural interaction skills. This indicates that scholars valued such 21st century skills as collaboration and communication among students in technology-supported language learning activities. For example, Sevy-Biloon and Chroman (2019) used social and collaborative tools (e.g., Google Docs, Facebook, etc.) to support communication between students from different cultural backgrounds and their results showed that students' speaking skills, social and cross-cultural interaction, and communication skills were promoted. Moodle is popular among researchers because this learning management system not only supports learners' adaptive and inquiry-based learning, but also helps teachers share learning resources with learners, design learning activities, and manage learners' learning progress (García-Sánchez and Burbules, 2016). For example, Yang et al. (2014) designed a language learning activity based on the Moodle platform that asked students to complete reading and writing tasks in the system to promote the development of reading, writing skills and critical thinking. In addition, researchers most often used Google Docs (collaboration tool), Prezi (presentation tool), Windows Movie Maker, Photo Story3 (creative tools) and Blogs (social tool) to support students' creativity and innovation skills, problem-solving skills, and ICT literacy. And only two studies have used films (multimedia materials) and blogs (social tool) to support students' media literacy.

Scholars reported that technologies pose some challenges for learners. For example, students were not experienced to use technology and had no trainings before learning activities; then they complained about problems to use technology during learning (Lai, 2017). Students were also confused about the layout of the platform and noted that there were incompatibilities and connectivity issues with learning devices (Hosseinpour et al., 2019). When communicating remotely, students pointed out that there were problems with the network and they were not able to connect and participate in learning process (Mohamadi Zenouzagh, 2018; Jung et al., 2019).

This review also analyzed technologies that were used by those few studies that focused on non-English languages. This review found that, in general, scholars in these studies used such technologies as creative tools (Adobe Spark), collaboration tools (Google Docs), and social tool (Facebook) to present multimedia content to learners and support collaborative, creative and communicative learning activities (Valdebenito and Chen, 2019).

With regard to the distribution of technology in theory. Social constructivism theory was the most commonly cited theory in reviewed research and scholars used various technologies such as learning management systems (e.g., Moodle), creative tools (e.g., iMovie) or social tools (e.g., Facebook) to support constructivism-based learning activities. That is, interactive and collaborative learning activities were designed for students to learn new knowledge and then apply it to construct meaning in authentic contexts.

Based on the results of this study, several recommendations for educators and researchers were proposed. First, it is recommended that learning activities supported by technologies are designed based on appropriate theoretical foundation. Second, teachers are encouraged to conduct appropriate technology training for students beforehand so that they become familiar with technology tools. Third, teachers and researchers should test learning tools with students in advance in order to identify any possible technical problems, and provide timely support during learning process.

As shown in Table 1, in the reviewed study, researchers used the following tools: Moodle, Google classroom, Quantum leap, and WebQuest, to develop adaptive language learning activities on learning platforms. These tools are used to integrate different types of instructional resources and diverse language learning activities to provide learners with adaptive learning materials that meet their learning needs. Students can ask questions and receive feedback from other students or teachers, and take control of their own learning progress.

For example, Arnó-Macià and Rueda-Ramos (2011) designed tasks for reading, listening, and speaking practice in Quantum leap platform. Researchers have designed listening tasks in Moodle platform; students were required to analyze, evaluate, and summarize content after listening (Yang et al., 2013, 2014). Srebnaja and Stavicka (2018) designed WebQuests-based speaking and writing tasks.

All of these studies noted that learners' performance in speaking, listening, reading, writing, and grammar improved after completing the computer-assisted adaptive language learning tasks. In addition, students' critical thinking skills were developed.

As shown in Table 2, the following tools were used by researchers for the development of collaborative-based language learning activities: (1) collaboration tools: Google Docs, Google Drive, Wiki, Edmodo, and E-writing forum. These collaborative tools have the following functions: sharing, collaborative editing, cloud storage, synchronized display, and help students freely share information in various formats (e.g., text, images, videos, web links, audio recordings, music, etc.) on the platform so that they can exchange ideas and collaborate on editing content; (2) creative tools: Adobe Spark, to support students' expression of ideas; (3) social tools: Blogs or WordPress, to support students in reading and commenting on each other's work.

Collaboration-based language learning activities are those in which students work in groups to solve problems and complete tasks proposed by the teacher, such as asking students to provide an essay or present their ideas in other ways (e.g., a solution, a report, and a performance). For example, Amir et al. (2011) asked students to work in groups to publish six articles based on different topics over the course of 14 weeks, and one of the tasks required students to find and discuss software about computer-assisted writing.

Mohamadi Zenouzagh (2018) designed a collaborative writing activity based on the E-writing platform. Valdebenito and Chen (2019) designed a collaborative activity on the theme of “food and culture” in which students first had to use Google Maps to identify geographic areas related to the content, then use a Google Doc to record their ideas, and finally use video production tools such as Adobe Spark to express their ideas and share them on the WordPress platform. Huh and Lee (2020) designed a creative learning English collaborative activity in which students first used a mobile app to learn how to spell words, then the group took the words they learned and expressed them through the role play and song. Lai (2017) designed different collaborative tasks, for example, students needed to use the ThingLink tool to create vocabulary lists and greeting cards related to the topic, which were then shared on the Padlet platform and discussed. In addition, students were required to use HomeStyler to collaboratively design a dream home and use some vocabulary related to “location” to describe the design of their home.

Girgin and Cabaroglu (2021) designed an English learning project that integrates Web 2.0 technology and flipped classroom, and students used Padlet to watch videos in class. In grammar classes, students used Kahoot, Quizlet, Quizizz, Animoto, Powtoon, and Poster MyWall to answer grammar questions. In vocabulary and reading classes, students used tools such as Mind Meister, Voki, Canva, Cram, Go Animate and Story-bird to create mind maps, as well as create digital stories, which can be presented and shared. Chen et al. (2021) used virtual reality technology to design language learning activities. Learners were required to first watch a virtual reality scene and think about how to solve the problem based on a series of guiding questions provided by the teacher. Then students role-played in English to create a virtual reality video of the problem being solved.

The results of the abovementioned studies showed that collaborative-based language learning activities facilitated the development of learners' language skills. The researchers noted that collaborative problem-solving language learning activities provided learners with a large number of writing tasks, such as writing reports, essays, or creating storylines and designing works. The process of sharing with each other enabled to point out grammatical errors (Amir et al., 2011; Mohamadi Zenouzagh, 2018; Hosseinpour et al., 2019). When learners used multimedia resources to create vocabulary lists and greeting cards, their vocabulary and grammar skills were also improved (Lai, 2017).

At the same time, students' critical thinking was developed as they gave each other's critical and constructive comments (Valdebenito and Chen, 2019; Zou and Xie, 2019; Girgin and Cabaroglu, 2021). In addition, students completed tasks in small groups which promoted the development of communication and collaboration skills during discussions with each other (Amir et al., 2011; García-Sánchez and Burbules, 2016; Lai, 2017; Mohamadi Zenouzagh, 2018; Hosseinpour et al., 2019; Zou and Xie, 2019; Girgin and Cabaroglu, 2021). The process of students voicing digital content promoted the development of speaking skills (Huh and Lee, 2020). In the process of creating digital works, digital literacy was developed (García-Sánchez and Burbules, 2016; Valdebenito and Chen, 2019). Chen et al. (2021) pointed out that learners learn contextually in an immersive learning environment, and solving real problems through virtual reality technology improved learners' vocabulary as well as promoted their problem-solving skills.

As shown in Table 3, in reviewed studies, language learning activities based on creative works consisted of two main categories: creating digital stories or videos. The main models for this type of learning activity were as follows: students communicated in groups about how to create a digital story or video, then collected and processed relevant information, after that created a digital story, and finally shared content and communicated with each other about it.

The researchers chose different tools to support such learning process, e.g., (1) creating digital stories, i.e., Photo Story3, Windows Movie Maker, or iMovie; (2) creating video scripts in collaboration, i.e., Google Docs or Google Drive; (3) presenting digital stories, i.e., Prezi or PPT; (4) sharing digital stories and communicating, i.e., Google+ forums, Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, Google Classroom, and classroom management systems.

The researcher noted that digital storytelling promoted language skills, specifically, the process of writing story scripts promoted students' writing and vocabulary skills (Thang et al., 2014; Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou, 2017; Kulsiri, 2018; Yalçin and Öztürk, 2019; Chiang, 2020). It also promoted 21st century skills. Researchers mentioned three approaches for creating digital stories or videos such as free-writing, rewriting the ending of the story, and specifying the theme, and in this open-ended work creation process, students' sense of creativity, problem-solving skills, and digital literacy were developed (Thang et al., 2014; Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou, 2017; Kulsiri, 2018; Yalçin and Öztürk, 2019; Yang et al., 2022). Regarding the creation of digital stories on a specific theme, the researcher asked learners to design a new country, and students needed to understand a range of elements including different countries and cultures, such as national characteristics, language, national policies, climate and life. As a result, students' social and cross-cultural skills were improved. In addition, critical thinking was facilitated as students developed different ideas and perspectives as they evaluated each other's digital stories (Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou, 2017). Finally, students developed their communication and collaboration skills when working in groups (Thang et al., 2014; Sevilla-Pavón and Nicolaou, 2017; Kulsiri, 2018; Yalçin and Öztürk, 2019; Mirza, 2020; Huang, 2021).

As shown in Table 4, language learning activities based on multimedia materials involved such tools as (1) web-based learning management system, e.g., EDpuzzle; (2) social tool, e.g., YouTube; and (3) multimedia textbooks. All of them provided multimedia resources for students. There were also (4) collaboration tools, e.g., Padlet and Google docs, which supported learners to share ideas with each other.

Scholars have designed a variety of language learning activities based on multimedia materials, but the topics and learning tasks of the multimedia materials involved in these studies differed. For example, Tseng (2017) asked learners to watch a video on the topic of cultural differences, and then students gave oral presentations and reflections to present their views on cultural differences. Zou and Xie (2019) asked students to watch a video on EDpuzzle, then to discuss in groups, negotiate and compare answers, to share their output to the Padlet platform, and finally submit their reports in Google docs. Nikitova et al. (2020) asked students to watch videos from multimedia textbooks with different English contexts and then simulated learners' role play activities. Aristizábal-Jiménez (2020) asked learners to watch YouTube videos, analyze the structure and content of video content, and then create posters to present and share their ideas.

The researcher noted that language learning activities based on multimedia materials promoted learners' language skills and 21st century skills. Specifically, learners' listening skills were promoted after watching the videos (Tseng, 2017). Culturally relevant content in videos and culture-based communication among peers promoted students' social and cross-cultural interaction skills (Tseng, 2017). Learners actively used dictionaries and discussed grammar while completing tasks to make the information easier to understand, which also promoted students' vocabulary and grammar skills (Aristizábal-Jiménez, 2020). In addition, working in groups to complete tasks promoted speaking, writing, grammar, and vocabulary skills. This was also beneficial to develop students' problem solving, collaboration, critical thinking, and communication skills (Aristizábal-Jiménez, 2020; Nikitova et al., 2020).

As shown in Table 5, the researchers designed online communication-based language learning activities. Most of them were cross-cultural communication activities to support cross-cultural communication between students from different cultural backgrounds. In terms of technology, the researchers mainly used social tools to support textual or video communication, e.g., Facebook, Skype, and WhatsApp. In addition, researchers have utilized learning management systems to support students to view learning resources uploaded by teachers.

The design of cross-cultural communication activities followed the same pattern—exposure to cross-cultural knowledge, reflection on cross-cultural differences, and cross-cultural exchange. For example, Calogerakou and Vlachos (2011) had students from two countries to watch movies and compare culture presented in movies with their own culture. Then students had to post comments on a blog and discuss their ideas. Chen and Yang (2016) asked students to share culturally specific folklore stories with their partners and to make videos of the stories to send to their partners. In addition, students were asked to perform a puppet show via videoconference. All of these were for students to learn about cultural similarities and differences. Chen and Yang (2014) designed a discussion activity based on cultural themes; for example, students discussed movies that involved culturally different content, and then students shared their opinions on Wiki. Lewis and Schneider (2015) asked learners to interact with native Spanish-speaking students and discuss cultural topics such as “local living conditions” and “how to celebrate holidays.” Learners were then asked to write a mini-biography or travel brochure for their study partner to demonstrate the cultural knowledge they gained during the exchange. Özdemir (2017) asked students to watch YouTube videos and discuss them based on cross-cultural questions prepared by the teacher. Sevy-Biloon and Chroman (2019) designed an intercultural exchange program in which students from Ecuador and the United States were randomly paired and then engaged in a cultural exchange based on the theme of the language course. Jung et al. (2019) asked students from different cultural backgrounds to discuss cultural topics, including “happiness factors, family, and food,” and finally, students reflected on the discussion, exchanged proverbs with each other, and then presented cultural differences. They reflected on their experiences in a reflective journal. Jamalai and Krish (2021) designed an online discussion activity, in which learners were required to engage in online discussions based on topics posted by teachers in a forum.

The results showed that students' speaking, vocabulary, writing, reading, and grammar skills improved when communicating through text and speech because students double-checked vocabulary spelling and grammar. Students identified errors they made when communicating using text and speech and corrected them to ensure that others understood their intended meaning (Calogerakou and Vlachos, 2011; Chen and Yang, 2014, 2016; Lewis and Schneider, 2015; Özdemir, 2017; Hirotani and Fujii, 2019; Jung et al., 2019; Sevy-Biloon and Chroman, 2019; Jamalai and Krish, 2021). In addition, students' listening skills improved after watching YouTube videos (Özdemir, 2017).

At the same time, students' communication process using social tools developed the ability to use writing software, electronic dictionaries, and collect information on the Internet, and therefore media literacy was improved (Calogerakou and Vlachos, 2011). All studies point to the development of cultural interaction skills after students interacted and exchanged different cultural perspectives with partners (Calogerakou and Vlachos, 2011; Chen and Yang, 2014, 2016; Lewis and Schneider, 2015; Özdemir, 2017; Hirotani and Fujii, 2019; Jung et al., 2019; Sevy-Biloon and Chroman, 2019). Communication (Chen and Yang, 2014; Lewis and Schneider, 2015; Hirotani and Fujii, 2019) and collaboration skills were also developed (Chen and Yang, 2014) in reviewed studies.

This review also analyzed learning activities that were used by those few studies that focused on non-English languages. This review found that most learning activities designed in these studies were online cross-cultural communicative activities. This shows that the primary goal of these learning projects was to develop students' foreign language and intercultural communication skills.

Based on the findings of the reviewed literature, the five types of language learning activities supported by technology had a positive impact on students' language skills as well as their 21st century skills development. Moreover, this review found that these learning activities followed similar pattern. The common pattern for language learning activities based on culture-related communication was exposure to cross-cultural knowledge, reflection on cross-cultural differences, and cross-cultural exchange. The common pattern of language learning activities for creative works was as follows: students communicated in groups about how to create a work (such as digital story or video), then collected and processed relevant information, created a work, and then shared content and communicated with each other about it. These patterns could provide suggestions for researchers and teachers to design similar instructional activities that target development of language skills and 21st century skills in the future.

Second, this review found that researchers designed similar instructional activities, but the research focus was different. For example, in the adaptive language learning activities on learning platforms, researchers focused on the development of students' speaking skills and lacked attention to reading skills. And in the collaborative task-based language learning activities, researchers have focused more on writing and vocabulary skills, collaboration, and communication skills, and lacked attention to listening skills. In creative writing-based language learning activities, researchers focused more on speaking and writing skills as well as creative and communication skills.

The most common study samples were small ones with participants range from 11 to 30 (n = 11) and medium samples with range between 61 and 90 (n = 8) participants. Research durations were mostly between 3 and 6 months (n = 10). Small sample size was acknowledged as a limitation in some studies (Hirotani and Fujii, 2019; Zou and Xie, 2019). The possible reason for this is that most of the studies were based on small classroom settings. In the reviewed studies, the most common academic level of participants was undergraduate level. There were 12 studies that did not specify research duration. Regarding this finding, there is a lack of attention in previous retrospective studies (Guan, 2014; Duman et al., 2015; Persson and Nouri, 2018).

Most of the studies collected both quantitative and qualitative data, which can help researchers to draw conclusions from different perspectives. Quantitative data included tests, scales, and rubrics; qualitative data included student's work, open-ended questions, student feedback, interviews, student chat transcripts, student reflections, teacher journals, and observations. One of the most common forms of quantitative data collection is a test (n = 15), involving student language tests (tests of English speaking and listening) and tests of 21st century skills (critical thinking and creative thinking). The most common method of qualitative data collection was interview (n = 13), where the researcher usually designed an interview outline and then asked learners questions to understand their learning experiences, attitudes, motivations, and challenges in the learning process. In addition, researchers have extensively used questionnaires (n = 17), including both closed-ended and open-ended questions, to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. For example, the researchers used questionnaires to investigate learners' perceptions of technology-supported language learning, including effectiveness, usefulness, and students' perceptions of developing intercultural communicative competence and language skills through online discussions (Jung et al., 2019).

Based on the above findings, the recommendations of the present study for researchers and teachers are as follow. First, researchers could consider studies with longer time spans and collect data from bigger number of participants to investigate students' development over time and have generalizable conclusions. Second, researchers can collect multiple types of data, focus on students' learning processes and outcomes, and then interpret findings from different perspectives.

There are a variety of research designs for reviewed studies on technology-supported language learning and 21st century skills. The most common are quasi-experimental studies. Such studies are characterized by using pre- and post-tests to measure changes in participants' language skills, 21st century skills and other learning outcomes and attitudes before and after participation in learning activities. In quasi-experimental studies, participants are not randomly assigned to an experimental or control group (Persson and Nouri, 2018; Huang, 2021). These findings are consistent with other reviews on technology-supported language learning (Persson and Nouri, 2018). The present study suggests that educators and researchers can use the three research methods mentioned above to validate their studies in future.

In this section, the study discusses findings from reviewed studies and recommendations for educators and researchers. In reviewed studies, in addition to finding that technology-supported learning activities promoted learners' language skills and 21st century skills, researchers also found that these technologies led to positive learning experiences, which resulted in better learning outcomes. For example, learning through multimedia textbooks, collaborative blog-based writing activities, smartphone-based video filming activities and language learning projects based on intercultural exchange all increased students' motivation (Amir et al., 2011; García-Sánchez and Burbules, 2016; Sevy-Biloon and Chroman, 2019; Aristizábal-Jiménez, 2020; Huang, 2021). For example, Hosseinpour et al. (2019) noted that through collaborative writing activities, learners' motivation and self-confidence levels were increased. Mirza (2020) argued that through digital storytelling-based learning activities, students gained more confidence. Researchers have also looked at the different learning performance of students due to individual differences in abilities or their characteristics. Yang et al. (2014) found that in terms of writing, significant differences were found between “basic” and “low-intermediate” learners as a result of the difference in ability. Yalçin and Öztürk (2019) found that girls had a more negative attitude toward technology than boys.

While many studies pointed to positive student attitudes toward technology-supported learning activities (Arnó-Macià and Rueda-Ramos, 2011; Girgin and Cabaroglu, 2021), several studies highlighted challenges that students faced when using technology for learning. Challenges from technology, with some learners finding it difficult to use in learning activities or being confused about the layout of mobile applications were mentioned. Students also noted problems with device incompatibility and poor network quality and speed when using technology. Self-competence challenges, with learners noting that learning tasks were difficult for them, for example, insufficient time to complete learning tasks, lack of research skills, or language skills needed to complete tasks, were reported. Difficulties in finding an interesting topic and choosing the right tools to create their work were also reported in reviewed studies. Challenges of collaborating with others, with some learners noting that they encounter uncoordinated teamwork, uneven distribution of work and unequal student contributions in collaborative tasks, were mentioned by scholars. Self-attitudes, as noted by learners who felt anxious about video chatting when they were communicating remotely, as well as fear of having their writing errors discovered by their partners when communicating in text, were reported in reviewed studies.

Based on the above findings, the present study recommends to educators and researchers, in addition to focusing on the impact of technology-supported learning activities on learners' language skills and 21st century skills, it is also important to focus on students' perceptions of technology, motivation, engagement, and confidence. This is because positive learning experiences can lead to better learning outcomes (Sevy-Biloon and Chroman, 2019; An et al., 2021). Regarding the technological challenges that students encounter in the learning process, it is recommended that they be addressed through advance trainings and through providing students with appropriate technological services during learning activities. Self-competence challenges can be addressed by designing collaborative tasks in which students with higher levels of competence can help students with lower levels of competence to complete the task. Regarding the challenges in collaborative activities, it is recommended that teachers and researchers design learning activities with clear rules for collaborative division of labor and rules regarding how learning performance of every learner will be evaluated. With regard to alleviating negative student attitudes, it is recommended that teachers design diverse teaching strategies and scaffolds to give students assistance during learning activities.