Grit, as a critical notion, has drawn the attention of educational investigators (Gray and Mannahan, 2017). According to Duckworth (2016), grit, as a non-cognitive construct, is more important than talent in academic achievement. Cross (2014) described grit as tolerating difficulties though preserving the wish for long-term purposes. Duckworth and Quinn (2009) also pointed out that grit is “a passion and perseverance to accomplish long-term goals whatever the obstacles and no matter how long it may take” (p. 541). Duckworth et al. (2007) classified this higher-order concept into two components: steadiness in interests and persistence in effort despite difficulties. Von Culin et al. (2014) also argued that gritty learners have willpower, perseverance, capability to determine well-defined objectives, endurance, and flexibility in facing difficulties in their academic life. Karlen et al. (2019) also highlighted these components in Grit Scale as a measurement. Recently, some studies have been done on grit as a relevant factor for predicting learners’ language success (Robins, 2019). Lee and Drajati (2019) also mentioned that learners require more grit to initiate foreign language communication. Regarding the relationship between grit and emotions, the investigations have approved a positive correlation between grit and passion (Sigmundsson, 2021), life satisfaction (Li et al., 2018), motivation (Muenks et al., 2018), and wellbeing (Lan and Moscardino, 2019). Changlek and Palanukulwong’s (2015) study revealed that learners’ grit is positively associated with motivations and negatively correlated with foreign language anxiety (FLA). Liu and Wang (2021) found out that grit, foreign language achievement, and enjoyment are significantly associated, and they have a significant negative correlation with FLA. Moreover, their study revealed mediating roles of anxiety and enjoyment in the correlation between grit and language learning achievement.

Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) pointed out that “Anxiety is fear or apprehension occurring when a learner is expected to perform in the second or foreign language” (p. 59). They linked it to the stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. In a foreign language learning context, Horwitz et al. (1986) coined the term FLA and defined it as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behavior related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language-learning process” (p. 28). Guo et al. (2018) considered Horwitz et al.’s (1986) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) as a principal instrument for measuring FLA. To avoid the negative impacts of FLA on learners, numerous studies have been done to diagnose the reasons for FLA and suggest practical educational approaches to reduce its stimulation (Guo et al., 2018). Some strategies such as the length approach (Wang, 2005), cooperative learning techniques (Nagahashi, 2007), and applied psycho-social training (Kralova et al., 2017) were offered to diminish FLA in educational contexts. Horwitz et al. (1986) categorized FLA construct into test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and communication apprehension. Cakici (2016) stated that test anxiety is concerned with a conscious or unconscious fear of failing that learners experience in educational assessments and tests. Moreover, Downing et al. (2020) defined fear of negative evaluation as “being afraid of their negative evaluations, and thinking that they will give others negative information about themselves” (p. 2). On the other hand, commutation apprehension has been defined as avoiding communications with others (Bourhis and Allen, 1992). It has a significant correlation with language learners’ linguistic background and proficiency levels (Molnar and Crnjak, 2018). Rashidi et al. (2012) investigated English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ communication apprehension, and they attributed it to the level of proficiency in language learners as beginners have a higher level of communication apprehension. FLA has also been widely considered a leading factor in academic achievement and language proficiency (MacIntyre, 2017). Studies have testified that higher anxiety levels are negatively correlated with foreign language proficiency, and with positive orientation and peer emotional support (Zheng and Cheng, 2018). Horwitz (2017) also found out that FLA has a significant negative correlation with some affective factors such as learners’ motivation, willingness to communicate, and self-esteem. COVID-19 pandemic affected learners’ FLA in online classrooms. Mohammed and Mudhsh (2021), in their study, revealed that COVID-19 pandemic causes normal anxiety to the EFL learners. They found out that there is no significant difference between the male and female learners in terms of anxiety caused by COVID-19 and external factors. Valizadeh (2021) investigated FLA in virtual classrooms during the Covid-19 pandemic in Turkey. The Turkish EFL university learners’ anxious feelings in traditional and virtual classrooms were compared in his study. He found out that the online classroom setting made a large number of the participants feel more suffocated and isolated.

The effect of educational contexts, such as face-to-face and online language learning, on learning achievement and performance has frequently been investigated by academic scholars (Chiu and Hew, 2018; Chien et al., 2020; Wahab and Iskandar, 2020). Jia (2004) asserted that face-to-face classroom learning, called traditional or offline learning, is a dynamic development of appealing and effective experiences to construct mental models of the world. He asserted that traditional classrooms provide an opportunity for learners to have face-to-face interaction between learners and instructors, which supports rapport among them. He maintained that encouraging classroom contexts for learners should be important for instructors to simplify learning. Nowadays, online language learning has been developed in order to meet the needs of learners in the world (Bolliger and Armier, 2013). Hurlbut (2018) stated that technology has markedly changed the learning and teaching contexts. There are numerous advantages to online learning such as increased opportuneness, flexibility, feedback, and interaction (Hsu et al., 2012); however, online learning contexts offer cognitive and psychological challenges for both instructors and students’ (Guri-Rosenblit, 2018).

Few studies have been done on the role of grit in learners’ performance in online educational contexts. For instance, Aparicio et al. (2017), in their study, found out that learners’ grit in online learning is significantly correlated with their satisfaction and performance. McClendon et al. (2017) listed some factors for learner engagement in online language classrooms. They stated that some non-cognitive factors, such as grit, persistence, and mindsets are significantly correlated with learners’ scores in online language learning. They argued that grit, mindset, and persistence increase learners’ engagement in online classes and improve learner achievement. Lan and Moscardino (2019) argued that grit was regarded as an essential component of educational success in a COVID-19 pandemic, and it was considered a psychological procedure that triggered and guided individuals’ activities in online learning contexts. Elahi Shirvan et al. (2021) investigated teacher’s fluctuations of effort and interest and how challenges may trigger the changes of effort and interest during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the fact that the teacher scored high on the grit scale, they found that the sudden shift from in-person to online teaching had put much pressure and demand on the teacher. Malureanu et al. (2021) explored the relationship among the individuals’ beliefs regarding self-confidence, grit, ease of use, self-efficacy, and usefulness of eLearning platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic. They found out that grit, self-efficacy, and perceived ease of use of eLearning platforms were considerably directly influenced by the self-confidence variable. Mediation analysis indicated that full mediation occurs only through the ease of use of eLearning platforms variable in the relationship between self-confidence and usefulness. Yang (2021) explored the relationship between Chinese EFL students’ grit, wellbeing, and classroom enjoyment in online classrooms during the COVID-19 pandemic. They found out that there is a positive relationship between learners’ grit and enjoyment, and high degrees of enjoyment were interrelated to high degrees of grit. They found out that grit significantly predicted students’ wellbeing and was also a predictor of classroom enjoyment.

Nussbaum et al. (2020) have emphasized the role of critical thinking, creativity, heuristic evaluation, and grit in the development of online language learning contexts. Liu et al. (2021) studied grit in mobile learning contexts among EFL learners. They found that grit has a significant relationship with academic performance in mobile EFL learning. Li and Dewaele (2021) revealed that the general grit and the classroom context in online English classrooms are significantly correlated with FLA. To the best of our knowledge, no studies have been done on the role of educational contexts in EFL learners’ grit.

Studies have shown that FLA in traditional classroom contexts has been a significant emotional variable in learning, and it has negatively affected learners “achievement. Many studies have been done on learners” anxiety levels in traditional face-to-face learning in classroom contexts. However, few studies have been delved into learners’ FLA in online language learning. For instance, Shahi (2016) found out that online learning through social media can decrease learner anxiety, and offer a less stressful educational context. He argued that scaffolding and teaching about using e-learning applications are critical in the reduction of anxiety since scaffolding contributes learners to comprehend the tasks better. In contrast, Hurd (2007), in a study, revealed that FLA levels in online learning are correlated with some issues like lack of feedback and opportunities for speaking in online contexts. He also argued that learners’ low confidence in online learning contexts and the type of employed applications can be described as other reasons for FLA. Kock (2004), in a study, also revealed that online language learning increases learners’ cognitive load, communication uncertainty, and reduction in enthusiasm which negatively impact learners’ FLA. Using media naturalness theory, they argued that self-confident and self-regulated learners could enjoy online learning education. Moreover, Russell (2020) revealed that online language learners’ level of anxiety, during COVID-19 increases since learners are not supported in choosing their educational learning style. Doğan (2020) also investigated the effect of online and traditional learning on learners’ FLA. He found out that learners are inclined to be anxious in an online context. He found two levels of anxiety among learners: FLA and online learning anxiety. He argued that a difference between a learner’s anticipation, experience, and apprehension from technology among learners can justify the reason for learners’ FLA and online learning anxiety. Demetriou et al. (2021) explored the relationships between employed and unemployed learners’ FLA levels and their adaptableness to online learning during the lockdown. They found that employment is significantly correlated with online learning and anxiety levels. Chametzky (2019) also stated that face-to-face interaction in traditional classrooms as a natural discipline in foreign language learning is not as ambiguous as online language learning. Therefore, it is obvious to anticipate foreign language classroom anxiety in distance learning contexts more than traditional ones. Having studied the anxiety levels of advanced learners in traditional and online learning contexts, Pichette (2009) did not find any difference between the effects of these two contexts on learners’ anxiety levels. He argued that anxiety is not a reasonable factor for foreign language engagement in distance learning.