Meditation has become a normalized activity for many people, regardless of whether it is practiced as a technique for reducing stress or as a contemplative exercise in a spiritual or religious context. In recent decades, several studies have observed that individuals who meditate regularly present significant differences when compared to non-meditators, including greater self-acceptance and self-awareness, feeling less upset over criticism from others, less somatic symptomatology such as pain, better health (particularly, mental health) and different health-related behaviors (e.g., lower use of tranquilizers or drugs to change mood) (Easterlin and Cardeña, 1998; Monk-Turner, 2003; Manocha et al., 2012); even brain function during attention tasks and heart rate variability dynamics have been observed to be different in meditators (Kozasa et al., 2018; Goshvarpour and Goshvarpour, 2019; Luders and Kurth, 2019). These differences have been attributed by some authors to certain differential mechanisms related to attention processing, as well as neuroplasticity, which are activated through the regular practice of contemplative exercises in which self-awareness plays a key role (Kozasa et al., 2018; Guidotti et al., 2021).

Moreover, different types of meditation practices have proven effective for improving the symptomatology of many syndromes and conditions. Among the different meditation programs that have been tested, those based on the systematic practice of mindfulness (i.e., present-focused, non-judgmental awareness) have shown to be particularly effective for treating different conditions, including depressive, anxiety, stress-related, and hyperactivity disorders, as well as headaches and cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, among others (Chimiklis et al., 2018; Chételat et al., 2018; Goldberg et al., 2018; Gu et al., 2018; Scott-Sheldon et al., 2020).

However, little study has been given to the potential of practicing meditation techniques to promote wellbeing through other ways that do not imply reducing pathological symptomatology. In this regard, transcendent experiences, defined as those of a state of consciousness characterized by altered or expanded awareness (Levin and Steele, 2005), can represent a source of wellbeing, and the upsurge in contemplative sciences in recent years has increased the interest shown in such phenomena (Garcia-Campayo et al., 2021). Peak experiences and lucid dreams are two examples of transcendent experiences that could be enhanced, both in terms of frequency and intensity, through the practice of meditation.

The term “peak experience” was used by psychologist Abraham Maslow to describe states of unitive consciousness, or “moments of highest happiness and fulfillment” in people’s lives (Maslow, 1964). Many other terms have been used to describe the same phenomenon, including non-dual awareness, enlightenment, mystical experience, and transcendental experience (Martin et al., 2021). At such times, individuals feel detached from the mundane particulars of their individual lives and sense that they are at one with a fully integrated universe. The emotions frequently reported during peak experiences include wonder, awe, reverence, humility, surrender, and even worship before the greatness of the experience (Maslow, 1964).

Achieving a peak experience is the ultimate goal of many traditional meditation techniques; however, Western science has focused much more on the long-term trait effects of meditation, achieved after years of training, that are thought to be therapeutic (Rubia, 2009). Although the impact of meditation trainings on the frequency or intensity of peak experiences has not been widely studied, some studies have analyzed the effects of meditative techniques on the development of non-dual awareness. A study conducted by Mills et al. (2018) found that an intensive 6-day mind-body program addressed at physical, emotional, and spiritual domains was effective for increasing the levels of non-dual embodiment and that these changes were maintained after 1 month. In the same vein, Martin et al. (2021), who deepened into the so-called “plateau experiences”—also related to altered self-transcendence but in a more calm, persistent (i.e., effects lasting for at least 1 year) way compared to peak experiences (Krippner, 1972)–, reported that most of the participants in their studies transitioned to deeper states of self-transcendence after taking part in online meditation programs that included positive psychology exercises (e.g., forgiveness, gratitude exercises). The self-transcendent state of the participant and the possible transition to deeper states were based on self-reported measures and semi-structured interviews conducted by an expert in the field. This study included many relevant variables, such as non-dual awareness, which is defined as an open, awake cognizance that goes beyond the primary identification with the mind–body and transcends the subject–object dichotomy identification to where ordinary distinctions of subject and object do not exist (Mills et al., 2018). However, these studies did not quantify the frequency nor the intensity of peak experiences, nor its association with other key variables such as mindfulness facets or absorption.

Mindfulness has been described as a multifactorial construct that includes the facets of observing (i.e., noticing or attending to internal experiences such as sensations, thoughts, or emotions), describing (i.e., labeling thoughts and emotions with words), acting with awareness (i.e., focusing on one’s activities in the moment as opposed to behaving mechanically), non-judging of the inner experience (i.e., taking a non-evaluative stance toward thoughts and feelings), and non-reacting to the inner experience (i.e., allowing thoughts and feelings to come and go, without getting caught up in or carried away by them) (Baer et al., 2008). While dispositional mindfulness has been associated with non-dual awareness (Hanley et al., 2018), and therefore the possibility of having peak experiences, the role of the mindfulness facets has not yet been explored. Absorption, on the other hand, is defined as a disposition for having episodes of total attention that result in a heightened sense of the reality of the attentional object, imperviousness to distracting events, and an altered sense of reality in general (Tellegen and Atkinson, 1974). The connection between absorption, mindfulness and peak experiences is conceptually clear and previous studies have already reported higher levels of trait absorption in meditators (Holzel and Ott, 2006; Bowden et al., 2012; Grant et al., 2013), and Berkovich-Ohana and Glicksohn (2017) observed that trait absorption is associated with mindfulness expertise and with transcendent experience.

In another vein, lucid dreaming, which is defined as the experience of knowing one is dreaming while one is dreaming (LaBerge, 1985), has also been described as a transcendent experience linked to wellbeing, increased self-confidence, psychological resilience, and positive emotions (Soffer-Dudek, 2020). Lucid dreaming is considered a hybrid state of consciousness in which part of the brain operates in the primary mode, while another part has access to secondary consciousness (Stumbrys et al., 2012; Voss et al., 2013). Research indicates that around 55% of adults have experienced at least one lucid dream, while 23% experience them frequently (Saunders et al., 2016). Previous research has already reported significant links between absorption and lucid dreaming—as well as with other consciousness states—suggesting that it could be considered a predisposing factor for such experience (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003; Hunt, 2007; Terhune, 2009; Rosen et al., 2017; Glicksohn, 2019). In addition to absorption, some authors have identified other variables associated to that lucid dreaming that suggest that this experience can be somehow trained; in this regard, Stumbrys and Erlacher (2017) concluded that cultivating mindfulness could increase dream control in those who experience lucid dreams. Interestingly, dispositional mindfulness in wakefulness has been associated with lucid dream frequency (Stumbrys et al., 2015), suggesting that the attentional control mechanisms that underline mindfulness trait could be also active in the dream state, increasing the ability to control the dream. However, longitudinal studies should be conducted to overcome the confirm such hypotheses.

The main objective of the present study was to explore the associations between practicing meditation and the transcendent experiences of peak experiences and lucid dreams in the general population. The role of non-dual awareness, mindfulness facets, and absorption was also assessed as possible predictors of the individual’s tendency to present peak experiences and dream lucidity. The authors’ hypotheses were that the frequency and intensity of peak experiences and the occurrence of dream lucidity would be significantly higher among meditators, and that non-dual awareness, absorption, and mindfulness facets would be significant predictors of the primary outcomes.

This study explored the associations between practicing meditation and having the transcendent experiences of peak experiences and lucid dreaming, while studying the possible predictive role of the key variables of non-dual awareness, mindfulness facets, and absorption on the study outcomes.

Participants were divided according to their self-reported experience and frequency of practicing meditation into two groups (meditators and non-meditators). Two statistically significant differences were found between the two groups: there was a higher proportion of females and individuals with university education among meditators. Despite being minor, these differences can be important since it has been described that transcendent experiences can be more frequent among females and people with higher education (Hay and Morisy, 1978). In our study, close to 60% of the total sample reported having undergone at least one peak experience in their life, which represents a notably higher proportion than those reported in previous studies conducted some decades ago in the United Kingdom and the United States (Glock and Stark, 1965; Greeley, 1975; Hay and Morisy, 1978). A more recent study (Hoffman et al., 2012a) asked 153 Americans aged 40–65 to describe a recent peak experience, in this case simply defined as a recent joyful experience; while most referred to an interpersonal experience (e.g., becoming a father), only six people (3.9%) reported a religious or philosophical experience, which would be closer to the concept of peak experience that has been used in the present study. More studies have focused on exploring peak experiences during childhood and youth, finding that this phenomenon is common and transcultural (Hoffman and Muramoto, 2007; Hoffman et al., 2010, 2012b).

Our study adds information regarding the characteristics of the peak experiences that previous studies had not reported: the mean number of peak experiences was 13.68 and the mean intensity (0–100) was 68.81, while the mean impact on the individual’s life (0–100) was 58.72. This impact was mainly observed in terms of meaning of life, and intense positive affect was commonly felt during peak experience. These results are in line with the classic characterization of transcendent experiences, defined by fulfillment (i.e., generation of positive emotions and the intrinsic rewarding nature of the experience), significance (i.e., increased personal understanding derived from the experience) and spirituality (i.e., the feeling of being one with the world) (Privette, 2001).

As hypothesized, the proportion of individuals who reported having at least one peak experience was significantly higher among participants who practiced meditation: 71.8% compared with 46.8% of non-meditators. This significant difference supports the idea that practicing meditation can promote transcendent experiences, which was the original aim of many meditation traditions (Rubia, 2009). The practice of contemplative techniques, such as mindfulness, can help individuals to develop non-dual awareness, which is a key element of transcendent experiences since these imply a state of consciousness characterized by altered or expanded awareness (Levin and Steele, 2005). This was observed in our study when the subgroup of meditators presented significantly higher NETI scores than non-meditators. Moreover, and again as expected, individuals who practiced meditation showed significantly higher levels of mindfulness, including all the mindfulness facets, except “acting with awareness,” which only presented a tendency close to significance. Likewise, absorption levels measured by TAS were significantly higher among those who practiced meditation.

Nonetheless, significant differences between meditators and non-meditators were not found for some of the assessed variables related to peak experiences. That was the case of the number of peak experiences in a lifetime, and their mean intensity. This could suggest that these variables may not be directly associated with the practice of meditation but with some other characteristics. In this regard, our study showed significantly higher scores for non-dual awareness, absorption, and the mindfulness facets of observing and describing, together with a number of LUCID subscales, being achieved by individuals who had at least one peak experience compared to those who had never had one. Some of these variables seem to be particularly related to the experience of transcendent states (Owens et al., 1999; Hanley et al., 2018; Martin et al., 2021). However, while the practice of meditation is associated with increases in these outcomes, some individuals may already present high levels in these areas without the need to practice mindfulness or other contemplative techniques, possibly allowing them to achieve the same number and intensity of peak experiences.

Another variable that did not show significant differences between meditators and non-meditators was the proportion of individuals who reported being able to self-induce a peak experience. In total, 32 individuals said that they could induce one of these experiences via different means (e.g., meditation, contact with nature, music, drugs). Interestingly, Maslow (1964) considered that peak experiences could not be self-induced, which could indicate that these participants may not have shared his understanding of the term “peak experience” in the same way, although he did acknowledge that some forms of art could be triggers for transcendent experiences.

As far as dream lucidity is concerned, two tendencies close to significance were observed in the two LUCID subscales of “thought” and “dissociation,” reflecting higher scores for meditators. The first refers to logical thought about other dream characters (e.g., “while dreaming, I often thought about my own actions”), while “dissociation” refers to experiencing the dream from a third person’s perspective (e.g., “I watched the dream from the outside, as if on a screen”) (Voss et al., 2013). In a similar line, a previous study (García-Campayo et al., 2021) observed that the meditators scored more highly for the “insight” and “dissociation” factors and reported that length of meditation experience was significantly associated with “control” and “dissociation” (i.e., higher scores for more meditation experience). “Dissociation” seems to be clearly related to the mindfulness facet of “observing,” and significant associations were found between these two subscales both in our study and in Garcia-Campayo et al. (2021). While previous studies have indicated that practicing meditation may have a notable influence on lucid dreaming (Baird et al., 2019; Garcia-Campayo, 2022), the lack of significant differences in most of the LUCID subscales in our study leaves this question open.

Finally, the interconnection between the study variables was clear, as were the significant correlations that were observed between most of them and the significant predictive role that many played at least in one of the study outcomes. Two variables were particularly significant in terms of predicting outcomes in our study: on one hand, being a meditator was a significant predictor of higher levels of mindfulness and of having undergone at least one peak experience, which goes in line with the study hypothesis and what previous studies had reported (Falkenström, 2010; Martin et al., 2021). On the other hand, also as expected, absorption was a very relevant variable since it was observed to play a significant predictive role in many outcomes: having a peak experience, non-dual embodiment levels, mindfulness levels, and dream lucidity. Previous studies had already observed significant associations of absorption with transcendent or peak experiences (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003; Bresnick and Levin, 2006; Studerus et al., 2012), meditation (Holzel and Ott, 2006; Bowden et al., 2012; Grant et al., 2013; Berkovich-Ohana and Glicksohn, 2017), and lucid dreams (Glicksohn and Barrett, 2003; Hunt, 2007; Terhune, 2009; Rosen et al., 2017; Glicksohn, 2019), and therefore our results add to the existing evidence regarding the significant associations between these variables.

Our results suggest that having undergone a peak experience is more common among people who practice meditation, even if the frequency of practice is low, compared with those who have never meditated. The number of peak experiences and their intensity, and the ability to self-induce them does not seem to be affected by the practice of meditation; however, some key variables such as non-dual awareness, mindfulness facets, and absorption were significantly higher in meditators. Dream lucidity, on the other hand, was not clearly higher in individuals who practiced meditation as only two subscales (“thought” and “dissociation”) presented significant differences. The interconnection between the study variables was clear, as were the significant correlations that were observed between most of them and the predictive role that many played in at least one study outcome. These exploratory results support the potential of meditation to facilitate transcendent experiences and the wellbeing associated with them, while its effect on dream lucidity remains unclear.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Comité de Ética de la Investigación de la Comunidad de Aragón (CEICA). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

JG-C: conceptualization, methodology, resources, writing—review and editing, supervision, and project administration. RH-A: writing—review and editing. AB-S: formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—review and editing. SF-M: conceptualization and investigation. RA: conceptualization, writing—review and editing. AP-A: methodology, formal analysis, writing—original draft. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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