Parenting is a sunshade word that goes on to talk about all forms of parental involvement with students and the kind of relationship, which exists between them (Mushtaque et al., 2021a). According to Carlo et al. (2017) believes that parents’ responsibility is to raise their students and become responsible citizens. Parenting approaches in the lives of students inside the home establish numerous social environments (Davis et al., 2015). Parenting styles vary culturally. In Asian countries like Pakistan, parenting styles refer to how parents control their children’s lives. Parental behaviors and attitudes affect children’s early and future lives. Children need solid parent–child connections to behave consistently, be self-sufficient, gain social skills, and become independent. This is connected to parental attitudes and behaviors, or parenting approaches. Authoritative, authoritarianism, permissiveness, apathy, and overprotection are common parenting styles (Checa et al., 2019). Children are overseen by Authoritative parents, but their urgent needs are considered. Authoritative environment encourages youngsters to trust themselves within fair bounds and develops healthy sovereignty (Dakers and Guse, 2020). Children raised in a democratic family can be confident, self-sufficient, creative, and healthy. It’s common in patriarchal societies (Kösterelioğlu, 2018). Extreme authoritarians focus on the child’s failure and mistakes rather than their own (Kezer and Turker, 2012; Scarcella et al., 2016). Permissive parents show warmth and care and do not set excessive expectations. According to them, the only way to love a child is to grant all their wants. Such parents would say, “Sure, you can stay out late.” Such parents do not want to disappoint their children, thus teens may make various decisions without telling them, believing they will not agree. This can lead to teen impulsivity and selfishness (Baumrind, 1991). There was an essential link between the permissive parenting style and students’ academic grades, the authoritarian parenting style, and the authoritative parenting style with the students’ average study grade. This study shows that parental influence plays an important role in students’ educational success (Rahimpour, 2015). The workload, psychological resources, and academic achievement of primary school students were examined by the researchers. Academic self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, and academic performance are all influenced by parental support for academic autonomy. Parental control correlated negatively with academic self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, and success. Parental involvement in homework is associated with children’s psychosocial and cognitive development. Academic achievement is connected to parental homework involvement (Grijalva-Quiñonez et al., 2020; Mushtaque et al., 2021b).

Academic self-efficacy is defined as a student’s confidence in their capacity to successfully perform academic assignments (Alzig, 2009). Academic confidence gained via academic success is referred to as self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is defined intrapersonal as a student’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in school (Pampaka et al., 2018). According to Fan and Williams, self-efficacy influences students’ effort and persistence (Fan and Williams, 2009). Students with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to put forth the effort necessary to overcome academic obstacles. Students’ ability to self-regulate their learning is critical to their success in higher education. Teachers and students may benefit from learning analytics to better understand how students learn (Mushtaque et al., 2021c). Learning analytics capabilities are expected to aid students in planning and organizing their learning processes, as well as self-assessment, adaptive recommendations, and analysis of their learning activities (Schumacher and Ifenthaler, 2018; Aqeel et al., 2022). Academic success involves self-directed learning (SRL). It is vital to use SRL in technology-based learning (Winters et al., 2008). According to Valentn et al., the interaction between SRL techniques and technology may be haphazard (Valentín et al., 2013).

Many teachers presume today’s students are digitally literate because they are engaged with technology and feel safe using it to perform chores. University students lack digital learning skills (Muresan and Gogu, 2013). Many college freshmen lack digital literacy. Students may use technology for social networking or entertainment instead of teaches (Prior et al., 2016). Not comprehending the ethical and social use of information (O’Sullivan and Dallas, 2010; Greene et al., 2014; Tang and Chaw, 2016). Digital learning also requires self-regulation skills. Students must be independent in digital learning. Self-regulated learners govern their learning. Self-regulated learning includes effort management. Digital literacy takes self-study (Greene et al., 2014). Online learning benefits from self-education and IT regulation (Ejubović and Puška, 2019). School and work require self-control and computer literacy (Scott, 1996). Other researchers say self-regulated learning’s impact on digital literacy is unknown (Broadbent, 2017). Promoting digital literacy in students requires more research because there is no one-size-fits-all strategy (Ting, 2015; Hassan et al., 2022). In digital learning situations, further study is needed on SRLS (Greene et al., 2014).

Based on the foregoing information, it appears that parents’ parenting style may impact students’ self-regulation, self-efficacy, and academic accomplishment. An authoritative and permissive parenting style may help students acquire self-regulation and achieve academically (Rizwan et al., 2021). A collaborative process in 2004–2005 resulted in Pakistan’s first-ever National Information and Communication Technology (NICT) Education Strategy Program. According to the NICT plan, technology has the potential to increase educational quality and accessibility, strengthen teacher preparation and aid student achievement (Batool, 2019). Digital literacy is the ability to use technology devices to access, manage, and use information. Teachers teach students how to use email, Google Classroom, Google Meet, and Frog-VLE interactive programs to help them become digital citizens. In the classroom, these media and technological elements are employed to engage students in interactive learning (Tohara and Al, 2021). While students can utilize technology devices, they struggle to get the information they need on technology platforms, indicating a lack of digital literacy. Higher levels of digital literacy may necessitate more technological and cognitive focus.

A temporal research utilizing structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted to acquire the desired results. SEM has been demonstrated to be the most effective method for examining the relationship between a large number of indicators and criterion variables, as well as for estimating models that contain no measurement errors (Marcoulides et al., 2009). Additionally, AMOS does well when it comes to estimating formative measures and moderating correlations. Additionally, the AMOS algorithm generated graphs representing the latent concept’s hypothesized relationships. As a result, we used AMOS to identify the connection in our research.

Parenting style influence on student SRL and academic achievement may differ. According to Carlo et al. (2017) children of authoritarian parents have self-competence beliefs when faced with academic challenges and obstacles. While the permissive parenting style has multiple positive outcomes in general, but in some researches have looked into the beneficial effects of the authoritarian parenting style (Checa et al., 2019). As in the current study, parenting style was evaluated in the context of Pakistani culture and evaluates the academic achievement orientation of secondary school students.

As the current study results indicate that the authoritative parenting style has a significant low association with LSE, while on the scale of SRL; the authoritative parenting style has a moderate association (Table 7; Figure 1). Results indicated that students with authoritative parenting style has the positive but low association with LSE while has the high association with SRL. One of the key determinants of children’s academic self-efficacy is their lifelong assessment of parenting styles. The consequences of parenting practices can be explained in terms of students’ experiences with mastery, vicarious, and social persuasion. According to Rahimpour (2015), parenting styles have a significant impact on all stages of a person’s life, from preschool to college. According to Rivers et al. (2012), parents impact the development of self-efficacy by providing observational models that might guide adolescents’ shifts in self-perceptions. Additionally, the studies indicate that parents’ affirmation of their children’s skills results in poor self-esteem and a great capacity for overcoming hurdles. Parenting style is mostly a situational factor affecting academic accomplishment. On the other hand, academic self-efficacy may function as a positive relationship between the effects of parenting styles on adolescent academic attainment (Vaculíková, 2018). Authoritarian and permissive parenting styles were also prevalent in Pakistani society. The findings support previous study, particularly for school children (Jamil and Mahmud, 2019). Pakistani parents appear to enforce norms, guidelines, and boundaries on their children while remaining open to listening to and conversing with them. Permissive parenting is less common in the Middle East and East, whereas these two parenting styles are more prominent (Farooq and Asim, 2020). This parenting style (very authoritative, lowly tolerant) supports children’s development. According to early parenting research, this mix of parenting approaches has favorable psychological, intellectual, social, and behavioral outcomes for children. Moreover, the findings suggest that parenting style (authoritative) has an impact on secondary school students’ academic achievement. Parenting approaches (authoritative), academic self-efficacy, and accomplishment were among the student findings. The study showed significant differences in the schooling of the mothers of the students. In terms of responsiveness and control, the study indicated that parenting styles vary little (Rizwan et al., 2021).

It’s also worth noting some of the study’s most significant findings. The first is on the authoritarian style’s significant benefits for self-regulated learning in schoolchildren. Through cross-cultural research, inconsistent findings about the effect of authoritarian parenting on children’s development were uncovered. According to certain experts, notably in the Middle East and Eastern countries, authoritarian parenting has a beneficial effect on children’s outcomes (Keshavarz and Mounts, 2017). On the other hand, the majority of Western research has discovered negative repercussions when parents adopt authoritarian parenting practices (Martínez and García, 2007; Dwairy and Achoui, 2009; Riany et al., 2021). According to the current study, adopting an authoritarian parenting style during the school years may help ensure that children have a strong academic achievement orientation. According to the same study, permissive and authoritative parenting styles are significant predictors of self-efficacy in college students, whereas authoritarian parenting styles are a significant predictor of self-efficacy. The influence of parenting style (authoritative) on academic achievement was determined. The findings suggest a positive impact of parenting style (authoritative) on the students’ academic achievement at the higher secondary school level. The student whose parenting style is control predicts academic achievement among their children at the higher secondary school level. Another findings, Llorca et al. (2017) found no significant relationship between parental influence on subject selection and students’ academic achievement. Arrived at a similar finding, asserting that parental style is a significant predictor of student self-efficacy growth. Similarly, he asserts that authoritative parenting is a key predictor of self-efficacy in the positive direction (Lau, 2013; Wolters and Benzon, 2013; McCardle and Hadwin, 2015; Aldhafri et al., 2020; Khazaie et al., 2021).

Furthermore in the current study Computer use, as measured by frequency of use, improves computer confidence and academic achievement. As a result, the more students who use computers, the more confident they become, and thus the more students who use computers, the better scores in results. Numerous other studies question the established link between computers based LSE and academic achievement (Murillo-Zamorano et al., 2019). According to our findings, the majority of self-regulation components were associated with an academic achievement oriented. These findings corroborate prior findings (Chik and Abdullah, 2018; Lai et al., 2018). To explain this, learners who used more self-regulating mechanisms performed better on future planning and self-efficacy measures. Students with greater cognitive self-regulation can increase their educational achievement by controlling their emotions and emotional influences. Additionally, they are highly motivated to study and are capable of planning properly. There was a significant positive correlation between self-regulation and academic achievement orientation. In other words, the more self-control an individual possesses, the higher his academic performance will be. To clarify this result, one could claim that self-regulation enables an individual to plan for and accomplish multiple future goals. This can be explained by the rapid advancement of computer technology and the extensive use of computers at home, in contrast to the lack of use at school, which is a result of schools’ antiquated equipment and students’ preference for the home environment. Our study also suggests that as computer use increases, parental education enhances academic achievement (Carraher Wolverton et al., 2020), implying that students who use a computer at home do better. Additionally, computer use contributes to a positive classroom environment and academic performance. As a result, despite the fact that computer use at school already has a direct effect on students’ performance, But in Pakistan the majority of students do not have easy access to computers at school (high schools in Pakistan average 4.2 students per computer), but those who do benefit academically (Ameen, 2017; Zhao et al., 2022). According to current research findings, authoritative parenting in children evolves through time as learners engage in instructional circumstances that provide them with information about what effective self-regulation is and when and how it can be implemented. Previous research on the relationship between SRL and achievement has yielded contradictory results, and its application in computer learning contexts appears to be limited, with some authors removing the construct from their SRL evaluation model to improve fit (Vilkova and Shcheglova, 2020). According to the findings, SRL is a critical component of academic performance (Mushtaque et al., 2022d). Students that exhibit a high level of SRL earn a higher GPA. According to Wandler and Imbriale (2017) self-regulation has a beneficial effect on academic achievement. According to Kashif and Shahid (2021) self-regulation is a fundamental component of computer learning and academic achievement. Additionally, the data suggest that all components of self-regulation, including post-learning metacognitive processes, have a significant impact on academic achievement. Moreover, metacognitive activities, time management, and the environment all had a significant effect on academic performance.

The goal of this study was to investigate the factors that influence digital literacy among students of educational levels. Students’ self-reported statistics indicated extremely high levels of use in education. Current study results revealed that students with excellent self-regulated learning, high academic accomplishment, and digital literacy boost their learning achievements and develop their learning attitudes in computer-related courses. This conclusion is congruent with the findings of research. Additionally, the majority of participants in this study reported having moderate to high DL levels. These results could be explained by the fact that all study participants live in a society where technology is used for nearly everything, and as a result, they easily identify as technologically literate. The use of DL contributes to academic success. While some studies discovered exceptional learning outcomes, the majority of learners benefited from technology-assisted instruction (Helsper and Smahel, 2019). Those who received online education without any support from technology developed a negative attitude about it and experienced poor learning outcomes. Despite their capacity to communicate with peers and lecturers, students reported feeling anxious and dissatisfied with this method of online learning. Asniza et al. (2021) stated that advanced technologies have the ability to boost student engagement and provide value to academic activities. Digital literacy has the potential to dramatically improve the process of online learning and teaching. Learners and teachers who are digitally savvy may be more prepared to deal with technical difficulties and online learning issues such as privacy breaches (Hartnett et al., 2011). The use of educational technologies, academic communication, planning of learning activities, assessing learning performance, and sharing information have all benefited from digital literacy. During a pandemic, digital literacy and parental support may be able to help children overcome online learning challenges and optimize the online learning and teaching process (Purnama et al., 2021). Teachers who are more digitally literate and have easy access to online learning materials may be better prepared to deal with an emergency situation. They were willing to adapt their teaching methods to the new conditions of the epidemic, seeing it as a fresh opportunity.

This study develops a conceptual model for the effect of multiple factors on the academic achievement of high school students. In general, the empirical findings corroborate similar findings in the literature. According to the provided conceptual paradigm, authoritative parenting students have a high SRL and academic achievement. We discovered that children who have a permissive parenting style have low SRL and academic achievement as a result of their usage of computers to “kill time” or play games. These are the students who receive the lowest grades. This conclusion can be drawn from the absence of a correlation between SRL and academic success. Nonetheless, there is a strong correlation between academic advancement and students’ perceptions of computers as teaching tools. Academic attainment is low in students reared by lenient parents. People have less faith in computers as a result of this mindset. A significant finding about digital learning was attained through the moderating effect of SRL and LSE on academic achievement. While digital literacy has a limited association with LSE and academic achievement, SRL improves academic achievement for secondary school students. When children use the computer at home, they must use it frequently in order to have an effect on their academic achievement; but, when kids use the computer in school, the computer has a positive effect on their academic achievement regardless of how frequently they use it. On the other hand, the frequency with which students use computers influences their academic achievement.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Department of Education, Nanjing Normal University, China. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

The Corresponding Author received the funding from the International Joint Research Project of Huiyan International College, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, China (ICER202001).

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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