There is a perception that mega-sports and other elite major events evoke euphoria among sports fans, which can translate into motivation and enthusiasm about being active (Murphy and Bauman, 2007; Bauman et al., 2009). The organizing committee of the 2012 Olympics in London promised that the Games would contribute to the promotion of sports participation among all social groups in Great Britain (Girginov and Hills, 2008). Promotion of sport – both Olympic sports and mass sports - is the alleged (mostly political) benefit of elite sporting events, but according to researchers (Weed et al., 2015), the facts do not fully confirm this claim, and effective funding to ensure increasing participation in events has yet to be developed (Chalip et al., 2017). While the promotion of sport and physical activity has long been considered a key element of the Olympic legacy, efforts to evaluate results have proved difficult, and legacy assessment methods are not standardized in all host cities (Weed et al., 2008). Researchers do not find any empirical evidence to suggest so-called sports inspiration, demonstration effect, or trickle-down effect from elite competitions in the development of mass sport. Despite their success at important events, elite athletes do not seem to inspire amateurs to do sports independently (Misener et al., 2015; Taks et al., 2018). Results obtained from previous studies show that elite sport can have a positive impact on the promotion of physical activity, although this applies more to people who already do sport – those who already participate in sport can be motivated even more in a given discipline or try other sports, but people who do not participate in pre-event sports do not seem to be encouraged to participate in sports on a daily basis (Weed et al., 2015; Storm et al., 2018). Studies show the existence of a demonstration effect for people already involved in sport, but not for new participation in sport (Taks et al., 2014). For example, it has been shown that the desire to participate in the marathon in Geneva was for participants one of the main reasons for increasing training in running (Hautbois et al., 2019). For their part, Storm and Holum (2020) did not find any direct positive effects from local sporting success on mass sport participation (Storm and Holum, 2020). Some studies show that observing a mass event has a positive impact on the willingness to engage in regular physical activity as well as the willingness to take part in a sporting event in the future, but such studies have tended to be declarative in nature (Malchrowicz-Mośko et al., 2019b). However, Taks et al. (2018) argued in favor of other positive effects that may translate into increased interest in sport in the future (so-called long-term effects), including increasing alliances between sports organizations, event organizers, and non-sport stakeholders (to strengthen the link between events for viewers/spectators and participation in sport).

We are currently observing the dynamic development of mass sports events around the world – changes are taking place not only on a quantitative level but also on a qualitative level – and many events or disciplines are modified and modernized to attract as many people as possible, including sports tourists. The market for mass sports events targeting adults is already very saturated nowadays, and more and more initiatives are also targeting young people. For this purpose, some sporting events focus on the competitive element of competition, with extreme elements or cultural novelty being added. An example would be horse boarding competitions in winter in the Podhale region in Poland, practiced during an event that previously consisted mainly of racing in traditional kumoterki (Malchrowicz-Mośko and Munsters, 2018), or dragon boat competitions that are spreading fast around the world.

Dragon boat competitions, originating in China and organized in many countries today, are an example of cultural diffusion in sport. As Kantor noted, until recently, cultural diffusion most often required direct contact between cultures, i.e., between carriers of different cultural elements (for example, between local athletes and sports tourists). Today, this process is also mediated by the media, in particular television and the internet, whereby personal contact is no longer necessary (Kantor, 2017). One example of cultural diffusion in sport may be the international spread of cricket – a sport traditionally originating from England, which is now popular in most countries that have close ties to it. In this case, the elite tried to actively promote this sport for hegemonic purposes (Kaufman and Patterson, 2005).

The International Olympic Committee plays a particularly important role in the process involving sport and sporting events promotion. The Committee strives to promote mass sport within the widest possible social circles, but most often by promoting Western sports. Pfister believes that such westernization of physical culture can harm traditional sports in non-Western cultures of the world (Pfister, 1997). Excessive promotion of the Western concept of sport in the spirit of the ideas put forward by Citius, Altius, and Fortius may contribute to the disappearance of traditional forms of physical activity. Kabzińska-Stawarz cites Asian sports culture as an example. The researcher notes that we are observing a retreat from traditional sports, characteristic of the peoples of Asia, due to activities aimed at popularizing disciplines of foreign origin among Asians. They are popular among Asian youth because Western sports provide them with a substitute for the modern world. As an example of such actions, Kabzińska-Stawarz refers to the South Korean Society “Sport for All,” which, in parallel with calls for active participation in sport, expanded Korean facilities for mass jogging, swimming, tennis, and badminton. Among the disciplines present in Korean culture for centuries, activists of the Society noticed only archery, also granting its significance for the physical development of the population. However, when it comes to Asian combat sports, their continued survival in Asia, according to ethnologists, is at stake. Combat practices are dying out because there are no conditions for their development, and often a willingness to embrace Western fashion carries with it a need for European sports and attractions that young Japanese, Chinese, or Korean citizens find fascinating. Their drive toward modernity is as great as Western fascination with Eastern tradition. To survive, today's masters often emigrate, sell their soul and body to cinematography in their search for western sponsors, try to modernize their practices, and offer them in a hitherto unknown attractive form and taste (Kabzińska-Stawarz, 1991). Wagner believes that the promotion of similar sports activities in different countries will lead to cultural diffusion in sport which will create a global sport culture (Wagner, 1990).

One of the most important psychological theories in contemporary health and exercise psychology is the Theory of Planned Behavior. The Theory of Planned Behavior is a social cognitive theory that has guided much research on physical activity. This theory specifies that some or all of the four main psychological variables influence human behavior (Neipp et al., 2013; The Theory of Planned Behavior, 2020): attitude, intention, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norm. Intention to pursue a type of behavior is the key determinant of whether or not an individual engages in that behavior. Intention is reflected in willingness and how much effort that individual is planning to exert to pursue that behavior. The stronger the intention, the more likely an individual will engage in that behavior. Attitude represents positive or negative evaluation when pursuing a type of behavior, while subjective norm reflects the perceived social pressure that individuals feel when pursuing a type of behavior or not. For its part, perceived behavioral control represents the perceived ease or difficulty of pursuing a type of behavior.

In our work, we decided to look into attitudes toward physical activity before participating in a sports event on the water, what participants' motivations were behind participation, and how participation in a water sports event affected attitudes toward physical activity after the event. We wanted to ascertain whether the type of event (modern vs. traditional) can affect participants' attitudes and motivation, and also examined gender-related motivation.

The aim of the study was to identify relationships between attitudes toward physical activity, participation in water sports, and recreational events of a modern and traditional nature. We were interested in the attitudes of participants of both types of events before participating in competitions, and whether modern water sports and recreational events (e.g., dragon boat competitions) were more effective than traditional events in promoting active lifestyles after competing, in the opinion of respondents. Therefore, the main research question was: does our society need any modern sporting events when it comes to promoting a healthy lifestyle and sport, or are these events just a marketing trap and provide mainly economic benefits to organizers of sporting events and the tourist regions in which they take place? Moreover, we decided to examine participants' motivation behind modern and traditional water events.

In our task, we asked ourselves detailed research questions as follows:

We used a diagnostic survey method during four water sports and recreational events that took place in 2019 in the Poznan agglomeration in Poland (two traditional and two modern). Athletes who did not take part in the event were excluded. In total, 394 respondents - participants in the events - took part in the survey. The following research tool was used: a survey questionnaire examining the attitudes of active participants toward physical activity/lifestyle shown by the respondents before participating in the event and the declared impact of the event on attitudes toward physical activity after the event. Surveys were completed in writing by amateur athletes during the event, and the selection of motives for participation analyzed in the event was based on the MPAM-R (Motives for Physical Activity Measure - Revised) scale. MPAM-R refers to the motives for people practicing sports. The following aspects are assessed; pleasure (e.g., “It's fun”), physical fitness (e.g., “I want to be physically fit”), competence (e.g., “I like engaging in physically challenging activities”), social relations (e.g., “I want to be with my friends”), and appearance (e.g., “I want to maintain my weight so I look better”). Pleasure refers to physical activity simply because it is interesting, fun, pleasant, and makes participants happy. Physical fitness refers to being healthy/physically active, energetic, and strong. Challenge/competence means being physically active due to the need to improve during activity, acquire new skills, and face a challenge. Social relations means being with friends and meeting new people during sport activities. Appearance refers to increasing physical attractiveness, better appearance, and achieving or maintaining the desired weight. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient obtained was 0.90.

MPAM-R is a revised version of an earlier scale with the same name. The previous measurement by Frederick and Ryan (1993) was shorter (three motivations). The longer version was elaborated by Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio, and Sheldon (Frederick and Ryan, 1993; Ryan et al., 1997). A 7-point Likert scale was used.

All participants were treated according to the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association regarding the consent, confidentiality, and anonymity of the participants. All the terms appearing in the survey were explained to the respondents – for example, they contained information on current World Health Organization guidelines regarding the recommended level of physical activity and what is recognized by WHO as an active and passive lifestyle. The organizer's written consent was given to conduct the study, and participants were informed about the significance of the study and kindly requested to provide information. The survey was anonymous, voluntary, and confidential.

Efforts were made to choose a research sample in such a way as to ensure the best representativeness of the results obtained. Information from the organizers on the expected number of participants was used to determine the number of respondents. The calculation used the sample size formula for the finite population, and it was assumed that maximum estimation error (e) at the 95% confidence level should not exceed 4%.

Descriptive statistics were calculated to characterize the test group and its parameters (plus the means for all parameters were recalculated), with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. The groups were compared with each other using Student t-tests for two independent samples – it was ascertained whether the motives for both groups differed significantly. For its part, Levene's test was used to ascertain whether the variances in both groups for the trait subject were homogeneous, or whether it was necessary to correct the variance heterogeneity in the t-test. The chi-square test was used for comparisons in the case of qualitative features. The last method/group of methods used was cluster analysis, which made it possible to distinguish between groups of people characterized by similar attitudes in the motives subject– k-means cluster analysis and the Ward method were used for this purpose. This allowed for the creation of groups with similar motives for participating in events. In the case of measuring motivation depending on gender, Student t-tests for independent samples were also used and, where necessary, a correction for non-uniform variance was applied (0.55: no differences, 0.001: statistically significant differences).

In order to conduct empirical research, sport events in the Poznan agglomeration selected for analysis were divided into modern and traditional water events. Statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical 10.0 program (Statsoft; Inc., 2011, Cracow, Poland).

Poznan Dragons – competition in dragon boats. The competition aims to promote water sport disciplines through fun and rivalry and to offer an attractive, new, and active way to spend free time with friends. Dragon boats, deriving from the Chinese tradition, constitute a modern alternative for Polish society (although in China these competitions are very traditional and have a long history from the Poles' standpoint, such an event available to amateurs is a new, modern activity for Polish athletes, and due to cultural diffusion has only reached Poland relatively recently).

Poznan Canoe Challenge – is a competition involving tourist canoeing, geared toward amateurs. Participants have a distance of 5 km to cover. These two modern events involving rivalry, carried out in the form of a family picnic, are aimed at promoting new forms of celebrating physical culture in the urban environment.

Another physical activity during which empirical research was conducted are two traditional recreational kayaking trips: river rafting for the residents of the Poznan agglomeration (organized in Luboń) and river rafting under the name 8. Edition of the Canoe “Critical Mass.”

A total of 394 participants of water sport and recreational events took part in the study, and below is a metric that demonstrates the socio-demographic profile of these respondents.

This question in the survey questionnaire was aimed at ascertaining whether modern events were more effective than traditional events in attracting physically inactive people – ascertaining whether there is a statistically significant relationship between lifestyle and type of event chosen (modern vs. traditional). The chi-square test was used for this purpose, and it was ascertained whether the percentage of people leading an active/passive lifestyle differed between traditional and modern events. The test result showed that among respondents there was a statistically significant relationship between lifestyle and the event chosen – however, modern events were more often attended by physically active people (over 80% active, in traditional events: 70% active) – p = 0.016. Therefore, this hypothesis has not been confirmed and the reality of the situation is the opposite of that assumed. Therefore, modern sports events on water do not have any more power to attract physically inactive people than traditional water events, with more people who are not physically active choosing traditional water events – kayaking or rafting.

The aim was to see whether modern water events attract people who had no experience with these types of water sports, for which purpose the chi-square test was used. Among people who had never participated in kayaking or rafting, a modern event was more often chosen (p = 0.004). Almost 40% of people taking part in a modern event were taking part in kayaking for the first time. In the case of a traditional event, this was 25%, and the hypothesis was confirmed – it turned out that a modern event on water more often attracts people who have not had any experience in this sport discipline than people who chose traditional canoeing events. In a sense, modern events are therefore effective in promoting water sports in Polish society.

This question used a Likert scale (1: to a very low degree, 7: to a very great degree), by means of which it was ascertained which type of event most promotes an active lifestyle (after the event) in the respondents' declarative opinion. The t-test was used for two independent samples (Student t-test for two independent samples), and homogeneity of variance was also verified (using Levene's test). The variances proved to be homogeneous (p = 0.072), and so it was not necessary to take any correction related to heterogeneous variance into consideration. The difference in willingness to lead an active lifestyle did not statistically significantly differ between modern and traditional events (5.27 vs. 5.13), p = 0.413. Therefore, the hypothesis has not been confirmed – in the opinion of respondents, modern water events do not produce a greater desire to lead an active lifestyle (in the declarative sphere) than traditional water events.

It was ascertained which type of event could most encourage people to take part in the same competitions in the future and whether modern events were just a one-off sports experience (an impermanent “curiosity”). The Student t-test was used for two independent samples, and homogeneity of variance was also verified (using Levene's test). The variances proved not to be homogeneous, and so it was necessary to take the patch related to heterogeneous variance into consideration. The hypothesis has been confirmed, with the difference in willingness to take part in the same event again being significantly greater in the case of a traditional event (6.1 vs. 5.4), p < 0.001. Therefore, modern events, compared to traditional events, are only a one-time experience and the people surveyed more often want to return to traditional kayaking. This can be due to many factors – e.g., the possibility of contact with nature during river rafting or attachment to rafting.

It was assumed that participation in a new type of sport would provide more positive experiences - fun, contact with a new form of physical culture, strong sports emotions, and above all, rivalry. The t-test was used for two independent samples (Student t-test for two independent samples), and homogeneity of variance was also verified (using Levene's test). The variances proved not to be homogeneous, and so it was necessary to take the patch related to heterogeneous variance into consideration. The difference in level of positive emotions in the event is significantly greater in the case of a traditional event (6.1 vs. 5.8), p = 0.048. As such, the hypothesis has not been confirmed, with traditional canoeing or rafting providing participants with positive emotions at a higher level than a modern event.

The t-test was used for two independent samples (Student t-test for two independent samples), and homogeneity of variance was also verified (using Levene's test). The variances proved not to be homogeneous, and so it was necessary to take the patch related to heterogeneous variance into consideration. The difference in willingness to practice sports regularly was significantly greater in the case of a traditional event (5.6 vs. 5.1), p = 0.008. The hypothesis has been confirmed and, therefore, modern water events do not encourage people to practice water sports more regularly (canoeing).

The chi-square test was used for this purpose, and there was no statistically significant relationship between gender and choice of modern or traditional event (p = 0.38). In a modern event, 57.7% of participants were men, whereas in a traditional event it was 53.3%, although the differences were not statistically significant. The hypothesis has thus not been confirmed.

Analyzing the two groups (under 31 and over 40), it can be seen that the difference was statistically significant – older people were more likely to choose a traditional event than younger people (in traditional events older people accounted for 56.7% of participants, whereas in a modern event young people accounted for 58.8% of respondents), p = 0.008. The hypothesis has thus been confirmed – modern water events are an attractive option primarily for young people under 30 years of age.

It was assumed that people who have completed higher education value traditional forms of sport (they appreciate, for example, contact with nature, they are more demanding, it is more difficult to convince them to partake in new, unproven forms of leisure time spending), and with new options it is easier to reach the masses – i.e., people who have not completed higher education. The difference is statistically significant (p = 0.000), although the hypothesis has not been confirmed and the situation is reversed, as people who have completed higher education were statistically more likely to choose modern events (therefore there is a statistically significant relationship between having completed higher education and choosing the type of kayaking event). Modern events more often attract people who have completed higher education (perhaps also for reasons such as fashion or social prestige).

Below are the hypotheses related to the motivation behind participation:

The t-test was used for two independent samples (Student t-test for two independent samples), and homogeneity of variance was also verified (using Levene's test). Answers to individual questions (detailed motives) as well as the sum of motives for individual groups were examined accordingly, and the Table 10 shows the average values for the sum of ratings of individual motives, broken down into participants taking part in traditional and modern events.

The group participating in traditional canoeing events showed (in relation to the group participating in modern events) significantly greater pro-emotional motives, while in the group taking part in modern events there were significantly greater social, body-, sport-, and health-related motives. Analyzing the individual questions (without combining them into groups of motives), it can be seen that for some the differences are insignificant. The exact results are shown in the Table 11.

In 13 questions, the groups participating in modern and traditional events did not differ significantly, while in the case of 17 questions, the differences in answers between the two groups were statistically significant. This translates into statistically significant differences within each of the motives analyzed (four in favor of modern events and one in favor of traditional events).