Data for the current analyses refer to the BiBB/BAuA Employment Survey of the Working Population on Qualification and Working Conditions in Germany in 2012. This representative survey was conducted by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education (BIBB) and the German Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA). Altogether 20,036 volunteers above 15 years of age who worked at least 10 h per week completed a highly standardized interview by trained interviewers on the phone (Rohrbach-Schmidt and Hall, 2013).

Interviewers asked participants whether they had one or more gainful occupations to differentiate single and multiple jobbers. Afterward, participants were asked to report which occupational activity they currently pursued to be denoted as main activity according to the time they spend in this activity. All following questions about working conditions and context were focused on this main activity. As dependent employees and business founders might differ in organizational information processes, we focused on main activities within a dependent employment relationship. Data of 35 participants were excluded due to missing information with respect to employment status. To avoid potentially confounding effects of the employment status, we excluded 71 family workers and 2,129 self-employed persons (including free-lance workers and independent contractors). Moreover, we excluded 19 student research assistants/ student employees. The final sample thus consisted of 17,782 participants (53.87% women), including 3,142 blue collar workers, 13,075 white collar workers, 65 persons who were unable to decide between those two categories, and 1,500 civil servants. Among the total participants, 1,084 (6.1%) were multiple jobbers (59.23% women). Participants overall had a mean age of 45.61 years (SD = 10.57): single jobbers had a mean age of 45.71 years (SD = 10.56); multiple jobbers had a mean age of 43.97 (10.56).

We conducted hierarchical regression analyses including variables in three different blocks. In step one, control variables (including context and person variables as well as working conditions) were entered. Second, we entered the paucity of information and holding multiple jobs (main effect model). In step three, we entered the interaction term (interaction effect model). All predictor variables were centered at their grand mean to facilitate the interpretation of effects (Aiken et al., 1991). To confirm our first hypothesis (H1, H1a-d), paucity of information should have a significant main effect on job satisfaction. To confirm our interaction hypothesis (H2, H2a), the interaction term must be significant, and the pattern of the simple slopes must reveal stronger negative effects for multiple jobbers. We calculated simple slope tests using an online tool by Preacher, Curran, and Bauer (Preacher et al., 2006). Simple slopes involve the regression equation for the level of the paucity of information depending on the form of employment (multiple or single jobbers) and test whether the respective slope is different from zero.

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics. As expected, the paucity of information was negatively correlated with general job satisfaction and with all dimensions of job satisfaction. Altogether, 6% of the participants reported to hold more than one job. Interestingly, holding more than one job was unrelated to paucity of information. However, employees who held multiple jobs reported less satisfaction with their jobs in general, their personal growth opportunities, and their material incentives. In addition, all control variables were significantly associated with job satisfaction in general and/or satisfaction with job dimensions. Specifically, general job satisfaction was related to all context and working conditions but unrelated to age and gender. Further exceptions comprised tenure being unrelated to satisfaction with structural conditions, workload and age with respect to satisfaction with growth opportunities, and gender being unrelated to satisfaction with the social climate.

Table 2 shows results of the regression analyses. In the main effect model, we examined the effect of paucity of information on job satisfaction, controlling for personal and context variables as well as workload and job autonomy as important working conditions. Paucity of information was negatively associated with general job satisfaction and with all dimensions of job satisfaction, confirming H1 and H1a to H1d. In line with Hypothesis 2, paucity of information and multiple-job holding significantly interacted to predict global job satisfaction. The interaction effect was also significant with respect to satisfaction with the social climate (H2a).

According to simple slope tests, within the scope of global job satisfaction, the association between the paucity of information and satisfaction was stronger for multiple (b = -0.201, p < 0.01) as compared to single jobbers (b = -0.157, p < 0.01). A similar pattern was found with respect to job satisfaction with the social climate (multiple jobbers: b = -0.275, p < 0.01; single jobbers: b = -0.227, p < 0.01). This pattern aligns with Hypothesis 2 and Hypothesis 2a (Figures 1, 2). In line with statistical tradition (Heinrichs et al., 2003), we chose values of 1 SD below and above the sample mean.

To rule out the possibility that our findings were caused by the amount of time employees spent at their main occupational activity and that lower working hours and not multiple jobs shape the relation of paucity of information and job satisfaction, we examined working hours to moderate the negative association between the paucity of information and job (dimensions) satisfaction. No significant interaction effect with respect to global job satisfaction (b = 0.000, p = 0.907) and to satisfaction with the social climate (b = -0.001, p = 0.208) occurred. In addition, no significant interaction occurred with respect to satisfaction with material incentives and growth opportunities, but with respect to structural working conditions (b = -0.002, p < 0.01).

In this study, we used research on organizational constraints and role ambiguity to build our proposals that paucity of information is negatively associated with global job satisfaction and job dimensions satisfaction. These associations were assumed to be stronger for multiple compared to single jobbers; especially with respect to satisfaction with the social working climate. Based on a representative sample of 17,782 German employees, we found the paucity of information to be negatively related to job satisfaction in general as well as with respect to the dimensions of material incentives, structural conditions, growth opportunities, and satisfaction with the social climate.

One of the most frequently studied outcomes of job stressors is job satisfaction (Dormann and Zapf, 2002; Faragher et al., 2005; Pindek and Spector, 2016). It is seen as a component of psychological well-being (Diener et al., 2003) referring to the extent to which a person likes or dislikes his or her job (Spector, 1997). Beside material incentives, work or a job also allows social contacts and appreciation, gives structure, maintains and advances our skills, and is part of our identity (Jahoda, 1983; Semmer and Meier, 2014). Occupational success is bound to the fulfillment of one’s working task to the extent that this fulfillment allows the accomplishment of valued goals (c.f. Grebner et al., 2010). Paucity of information hinders employees to accomplish their tasks (organizational constraints), as well as it leads to uncertainty about how to fulfill the task (role ambiguity) which in turn impairs job satisfaction (Örtqvist and Wincent, 2006; Fried et al., 2008; Eatough et al., 2011; Pindek and Spector, 2016). Considering that the paucity of information hinders the employee to fulfill the task it also hinders the person to accomplish valued goals in sense of personal growth opportunities as well as material incentives as well as leading to frustration (Peters and O’Connor, 1980). In line with these considerations, we found the paucity of information to be negatively related to job satisfaction in general as well as to all dimensions of it. Especially in a fast changing environment, managing and coordination information seems to be an important challenge. Moreover, aspects of working conditions (such as a supportive climate or the paucity of information) or even tasks that have to be fulfilled might appear in a different light due to their inherent social message (cf., Semmer et al., 2007). Appreciation is an important element of social support (Semmer et al., 2007) referring to the perception “that one is worthwhile, capable, and a valued member of a group of individuals” (Sarason et al., 1996, p. 21). In other words, providing support (e.g., in terms of giving information) reveals that these colleagues and supervisor care about the employee. It might increase the sense of control and the employee might feel obligated to reciprocate. Thus, social support is positively related to employees’ commitment and performance (Bishop et al., 2000; Allen and Shanock, 2013; Cortini, 2016; Cortini et al., 2016). Supporting the person to fulfill the task was found to be most strongly associated with job satisfaction (Colbert et al., 2016). In contrast, behavior or assigned tasks that indicate disrespect or lack of appreciation as its social message constitutes a threat to the person by offending the self (e.g., Semmer et al., 2007). Recall again the scenario of John, searching for information that should be already there. This might be seen as an unnecessary task that would not exist, if things were organized differently. Perhaps he thought this task should be done by someone else because it does not correspond to his occupational role (i.e., an unreasonable task). Previous research found such illegitimate tasks to be related to stress-related behavioral (e.g., counterproductive work behavior; Semmer et al., 2010) and cognitive-emotional (e.g., lower job satisfaction; Stocker et al., 2010; Björk et al., 2013; Eatough et al., 2015) changes. Thus, providing adequate information might become of particular importance in the sense of goal attainment, organizational support, and legitimacy of task assignment. It constitutes a positive step toward employee commitment, performance and satisfaction. According to our results, the paucity of information seems to be practically significant over and above workload and autonomy that are known to be important working conditions related to job satisfaction (Van der Doef and Maes, 1999). It must, however, be critically stated that as long as the person succeeds in the task, the paucity of information could also be linked to a sense of pride and satisfaction: John might be proud of managing the task without proper information. It would be advisable for future research to focus on daily events of lacked information and job satisfaction taking into account if the person successfully accomplished the task.

Work is a major cause of stress for many people in a stressful world. For jobholders who must coordinate multiple jobs, to be aware of needed information seems to be especially important. In line with our expectations, we found multiple jobbers more likely to be less or not satisfied with their job in general as well as with the social climate when they perceived a lack of information. One core element of adequate information processes is the interaction with supervisors and colleagues and the embeddedness in work-related social networks. It is plausible that employees holding multiple jobs have less time to seek out information, but concentrate on the specific task (cf., Wolfe Morrison, 1993). If necessary task-related information is not given, employees might rely on their colleagues or supervisor to inform them (Tschan et al., 2009). Transmission of information represents a central management duty – especially under conditions of uncertainty. As uncertainty associated with change is often based on missing or, respectively, failed communication, communication is a main concern in the research of change management and implementation (for an overview see Grant and Marshak, 2011). Particularly in times of organizational change, supervisors play a central role in communicating visions, transmission of goals and norms to employees, and providing a mutual high quality communication (e.g., Van der Voet et al., 2014; Tanner and Otto, 2016). In addition, research on semi-autonomous teams indicates that informal communication among colleagues could compensate for inefficient information systems (Morgeson et al., 2006). As mentioned above, social support (e.g., by providing information) is known to increase a persons’ perceived control over their environment (Greenberger and Strasser, 1986; Thompson and Prottas, 2006). In contrast, employees are less satisfied with the social working climate when they lack information, especially multiple jobbers who need control to coordinate more than one job. A recent meta-analysis showed that contingent workers, another type of atypical workers, had lower job satisfaction than permanent workers (Wilkin, 2013). Even if multiple jobbers receive salaries similar to those of some colleagues holding single jobs, they react similarly to contingent workers in that they might feel less identified and integrated because of switching between different professional lives. Future research should consider social integration as a core component in studying multiple jobbers. A lack of social embeddedness – especially when help (in terms of providing information) is needed – might impair satisfying social contacts and appreciation. However, the results show no difference between multiple jobbers and employees with one job regarding the effect of paucity of information on satisfaction with rather structural aspects of the task, with manifest aspects referring to material incentives and with developmental experiences that facilitate the growth. Recall that individuals may have various motives for working at several jobs, including economic needs or desires to broaden job opportunities. Motives might then affect reactions to the paucity of information and aspects of job satisfaction. Therefore, future studies should include the heterogeneous nature of multiple jobbers in the analyses.

Interaction effects did not depend on how much time employees spent at work (or more specific: in their main occupational activity) and in the organization of the main occupational activity. Previous research on part-time work suggests that spending less time in a work place might lead to being less included in the team and getting less challenging tasks (e.g., Rauchert et al., 2016). However, our additional analyses showed that effects on employees’ satisfaction in general and with the social climate could not be reduced to spending less time at the main occupational activity. Working hours did not enhance the effect of the paucity of information on job satisfaction in general or with the social context.

This is the first study examining the paucity of information within the scope of holding multiple jobs. The data are based on a representative sample of German employees. Although effects are small, the paucity of information was found to be practically significant with respect to job satisfaction over and above workload and autonomy as important working conditions. However, there are some limitations to our study that should be acknowledged. First, results of cross-sectional studies do allow many alternative explanations of the observed effects, as reverse causation cannot be precluded (Zapf et al., 1996). Consequently, future research should replicate effects using a longitudinal design. Second, all measures were based on self-reports of participants, raising the risk of overestimating results due to common method biases (Podsakoff et al., 2003; but see also Semmer et al., 1996; Spector, 2006). Related to this shortcoming, the influence of trait negative affectivity on job stressors and work attitudes has been discussed in the literature several times (Semmer et al., 1996; Spector, 2006); however, it could not explain differences in well-being between different jobs (Schaubroeck et al., 1998). Third, we studied variables only in relation to the self-prescribed main job, which should be most relevant to perceived stress and job satisfaction (Zickar et al., 2004). However, multiple job holding provides an alternative source of valuable work related outcomes. For example, the primary and secondary jobs could have combined work characteristics that affect job satisfaction in the primary job (Betts, 2002). Future studies should account for aspects of all jobs of the incumbents. Moreover, we used a single item to assess the paucity of information. Although single item measures are known to be valid measures (Wanous et al., 1997; DeSalvo et al., 2006), based on the conceptualization of organizational constraints and role ambiguity, task-related information might be a rather broad concept (e.g., including know-how and feedback) that needs to be explored in more detail. Future research should also be aware that too much information might confound task focus and impair well-being.

This study adds to the limited research on multiple jobbers and the paucity of information. Our results indicate that the perception of a paucity of information is negatively related to job satisfaction, especially for multiple as compared to single jobbers. Job satisfaction is known to be associated with performance, work behavior and mental health (Faragher et al., 2005; Fried et al., 2008). Thus, dissatisfaction might lead to severe consequences for both person and organization. Taking into account the rise of new (communication) technologies (e.g., Kompier, 2006) the paucity of information seems to be an important, however, widely neglected topic in modern society. The findings have practical implications: They underline the importance of providing adequate information to employees in general, not only performance feedback but also all information needed to accomplish tasks. Employees expect their supervisors and colleagues to provide them with necessary information (Tschan et al., 2009). Multiple jobbers who lack information are especially likely to be less satisfied with the workplace social climate. In general, organizations should create a communication climate that is characterized by trust, transparency and openness. A transparent information system integrated into this climate could help to find the right source of information in case the person is aware that some information is missing. Supervisors as well as colleagues should also be sensitive to provide all necessary information and to double-check that the given information could be remembered. Effective leadership particularly requires skillful communication. Hence, especially supervisors should be trained to be good communicators. In particular, quantitative information places such a high load on working memory that it requires repeated updating to ensure accuracy; thus strategies such as providing explicitly encoded information might enhance the accuracy of information transmission. Strategies like providing information explicitly encoded as to be transmitted – for instance, “John, please note the third update on XY, as constituted on 1 January 2017” instead of “Once again, we talked about an update on XY today” – might increase the accuracy of the information transmission process (Morris et al., 1977; Bogenstätter et al., 2009). A clearer information transmission process could enable employees to better coordinate their duties. In sum, employees, especially multiple jobbers, will have more job satisfaction if they receive all necessary job-related information.